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We argue that the major barrier lies in the field\u2019s overreliance on standardized, one-size-fits-all protocols and its reluctance to embrace personalization in the pursuit of precision.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>During the conference, 2 research cultures were evident: the \u201cSystematicists,\u201d who rely on conventional clinical trials, and the \u201cPersonalizers,\u201d who tailor non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) protocols to individual patient characteristics. This dichotomy reflects a broader challenge: how can we reconcile the need for standardization with the demand for personalization in translational research? The future of NIBS may lie in patient-specific, biomarker-driven neuromodulatory protocols that incorporate deep phenotyping and brain state-dependent stimulation, such as closed-loop TMS guided by Hebbian plasticity principles. This approach recognizes that post-stroke recovering brain is a 4-dimensional structure, shaped by space and time, which contributes to substantial intra- and inter-individual variability.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Understanding how NIBS interacts with each uniquely recovering brain is essential. Addressing this complexity remains a challenge for designing rigorous clinical trials and moving the field closer to effective, personalized integration in stroke rehabilitation. By delineating key components of personalization, we aim to reframe the discussion from \u201cif\u201d NIBS works to \u201cfor whom, for what and why, for where and when, and how\u201d it can facilitate clinically meaningful recovery.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1177\/15459683251399155","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T12:22:49Z","timestamp":1767010969000},"page":"333-342","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["To Treat or Not to Treat? A Point of View on the Clinical Translation of Non-Invasive Neuromodulation Therapy for Post-Stroke Upper Limb Recovery"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"40","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9073-3061","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pablo","family":"Cruz Gonzalez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Rehabilitation Research Institute of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4656-1909","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jack Jiaqi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong SAR"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ananda","family":"Sidarta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rehabilitation Research Institute of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karen Sui Geok","family":"Chua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rehabilitation Research Institute of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore"},{"name":"Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore"},{"name":"Institute of Rehabilitation Excellence, Tan Tock Seng Hospital Rehabilitation Centre, Singapore"},{"name":"Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 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