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In addition, the whole deformation procedure of the specimen can be recorded with images, which can be used to describe the development of strain localization and the shear band. It can be seen that the deformation process has three obvious stages, that is, the hardening stage, the softening stage, and the residual stage. The measured inclination angles of shear bands decrease as confining pressure or the mean size increases. In addition, it can be observed that the sand presents continuing growth of the unrecoverable plastic deformation inside the shear band and exhibits almost elastic deformation outside. From the detection results for local points in the specimen, the stress\u2013strain relationships are different for different parts, and the sand sample behaves like an uneven structure instead of an even element, which means that the usual method of measuring the stress\u2013strain relationship of the soil sample is only a macroscopic approximation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/1550147718799042","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,10]],"date-time":"2018-09-10T11:32:50Z","timestamp":1536579170000},"page":"155014771879904","update-policy":"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["A plane strain testing apparatus characterized by flexible loading and noncontact deformation measurement and its application to the study of shear band failure of sand"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Hongxiang","family":"Tang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Geohazard Prevention and Geoenvironment Protection, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu, China"}]},{"given":"Tao","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China"}]},{"given":"Lijuan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China"}]},{"given":"Longtan","family":"Shao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Structural Analysis for Industrial Equipment, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, 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