{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T14:34:46Z","timestamp":1777646086986,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":108,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,11]],"date-time":"2023-04-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1681171200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Anti-Defamation League"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Games and Culture"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Hate speech, harassment, and an increasing prevalence of right-wing extremism in online game spaces are of growing concern in the United States. Understanding trends in how and to what extent extremist groups utilize online gaming spaces is vital in taking action to protect players. To synthesize the current state of extant research and suggest future directions, we conduct a systematic review of the literature on right-wing extremism in videogames. We detail our search protocol, selection criteria, and analysis of the collected work, and then summarize the findings. Important themes include how and why extremists\u2019 targeting of online game communities began, the role of Gamergate in this process, and the industry and market context in which such activities emerged. We describe the current nature of the problem, with extremist language and ideology providing a kind of on-ramp for radicalizing disenfranchised gamers. We conclude with a summary of responses from industry and legislators.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/15554120231167214","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,12]],"date-time":"2023-04-12T02:29:02Z","timestamp":1681266542000},"page":"469-492","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Right-Wing Extremism in Mainstream Games: A Review of the Literature"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7281-5821","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Garrison","family":"Wells","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences, University of California Irvine, Ringgold Standard Institution \u2013 Informatics, Irvine, CA, USA"}]},{"given":"Agnes","family":"Romhanyi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences, University of California Irvine, Ringgold Standard Institution \u2013 Informatics, Irvine, CA, USA"}]},{"given":"Jason G.","family":"Reitman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences, University of California Irvine, Ringgold Standard Institution \u2013 Informatics, Irvine, CA, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1093-0220","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Reginald","family":"Gardner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences, University of California Irvine, Ringgold Standard Institution \u2013 Informatics, Irvine, CA, USA"}]},{"given":"Kurt","family":"Squire","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences, University of California Irvine, Ringgold Standard Institution \u2013 Informatics, Irvine, CA, USA"}]},{"given":"Constance","family":"Steinkuehler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences, University of California Irvine, Ringgold Standard Institution \u2013 Informatics, Irvine, CA, USA"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-78583-7_8"},{"key":"bibr2-15554120231167214","volume":"5","author":"Aguilera E.","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Games Criticism"},{"key":"bibr3-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Among Us (PC version) [Video game] (2018). InnerSloth LLC."},{"key":"bibr4-15554120231167214","first-page":"143","author":"Anahita S.","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Political & Military Sociology"},{"key":"bibr5-15554120231167214","volume":"155541202311537","author":"Andrews S.","year":"2023","journal-title":"Games and Culture"},{"key":"bibr6-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Anti-Defamation League (2020a).\n                      Free to play? Hate, harassment and positive social experiences in online games\n                      2020. Retrieved December 9, 2021, from https:\/\/www.adl.org\/media\/15349\/download."},{"key":"bibr7-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Anti-Defamation League (2020b).\n                      This is not a game: How steam harbors extremists\n                      . Retrieved December 9, 2021, from https:\/\/www.adl.org\/steamextremism#recommendations."},{"key":"bibr8-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Anti-Defamation League (2021a).\n                      Hate is no game: Harassment and positive social experiences in online games\n                      . Retrieved December 9, 2021, from https:\/\/www.adl.org\/hateisnogame."},{"key":"bibr9-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Anti-Defamation League (2021b).\n                      Online Hate and Harassment: The American Experience 2021.\n                      Retrieved on December 10, 2021, from https:\/\/www.adl.org\/online-hate-2021."},{"key":"bibr10-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Anti-Defamation League (n.d.).\n                      Extremism\n                      . Retrieved December 5, 2021, from https:\/\/www.adl.org\/resources\/glossary-terms\/extremism."},{"key":"bibr11-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Anti-Defamation League (2018). New hate and old: The changing face of American white supremacy. ADL Center on Extremism. Retrieved December 9, 2021, from https:\/\/www.adl.org\/media\/11894\/download."},{"key":"bibr12-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Anti-Defamation League (2019).\n                      Free to play? Hate, harassment and positive social experiences in online games\n                      . Retrieved December 9, 2021, from https:\/\/www.adl.org\/resources\/glossary-terms\/extremism."},{"key":"bibr13-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01419870220136664"},{"key":"bibr14-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Barlow R. (2019, April 23).\n                      White supremacy is metastasizing \u2013 in video games & WBUR.org\n                      . Retrieved December 7, 2021, from https:\/\/www.wbur.org\/cognoscenti\/2019\/04\/23\/video-games-white-supremacy-rich-barlow."},{"key":"bibr15-15554120231167214","unstructured":"B\u011bl\u00e1\u010d J. (2018). Use of video games for propagation of extremism. Doctoral dissertation. Masarykova univerzita, Fakulta soci\u00e1ln\u00edch studi\u00ed)."},{"key":"bibr16-15554120231167214","volume-title":"It came from something awful: How a toxic troll army accidentally memed Donald Trump into office","author":"Beram D.","year":"2019"},{"key":"bibr17-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1742715018793744"},{"key":"bibr18-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2018.05.026"},{"key":"bibr19-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2056305116672484"},{"key":"bibr20-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429266140-2"},{"key":"bibr21-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Call of Duty (PC version) [Video game] (2003). Activision Publishing, Inc."},{"key":"bibr22-15554120231167214","author":"Campbell A.","journal-title":"Huffpost.com."},{"key":"bibr23-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Campbell C. (2018, July 25). Gaming's toxic men, explained.\n                      Polygon\n                      . Retrieved December 6, 2021, from https:\/\/www.polygon.com\/2018\/7\/25\/17593516\/video-game-culture-toxic-men-explained."},{"key":"bibr24-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Candy Crush (PC version) [Video game] (2012). King."},{"key":"bibr25-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Carpenter N. (2021, Nov 24). Roblox sues banned \u2018cybermob leader\u2019 for terrorizing the platform, its developers.\n                      Polygon\n                      . Retrieved December 9, 2021, from https:\/\/www.polygon.com\/22799362\/roblox-sues-banned-cybermob-leader-for-terrorizing-the-platform-its-developers."},{"key":"bibr26-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/3125.001.0001"},{"key":"bibr27-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Civilization (PC version) [Video game] (1991). Take-Two Interactive."},{"key":"bibr28-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5204\/ijcjsd.v7i2.517"},{"key":"bibr29-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Communications Decency Act of 1996, 47 U.S.C. \u00a7 230 (1996). [Federal Statute]."},{"key":"bibr30-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Condis M. (2019b, March 27). From Fortnite to alt-right. There\u2019s a reason video games are such fertile ground for white nationalist recruitment.\n                      The New York Times\n                      , Retrieved December 9, 2021, https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2019\/03\/27\/opinion\/gaming-new-zealand-shooter.html."},{"key":"bibr31-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctv3dnq9f.12"},{"key":"bibr32-15554120231167214","first-page":"143","volume-title":"In digital ethics: Rhetoric and responsibility in online aggression","author":"Condis M."},{"key":"bibr33-15554120231167214","first-page":"1","author":"Conway M.","year":"2021","journal-title":"Studies in Conflict & Terrorism"},{"key":"bibr34-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Conway M., Scrivens R., McNair L. (2019).\n                      Right-wing extremists\u2019 persistent online presence: History and contemporary trends\n                      . 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How Roblox became a battleground for virtual fascists.\n                      Wired\n                      . https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/roblox-online-games-irl-fascism-roman-empire\/."},{"key":"bibr38-15554120231167214","first-page":"83","author":"Daniels J.","year":"2012","journal-title":"Social Exclusion, Power and Video Game Play"},{"key":"bibr39-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Davey J. (2021). Gamers who hate: An introduction to ISD\u2019s gaming and extremism series.\n                      Institute for Strategic Dialogue\n                      . Retrieved December 9, 2021, from: https:\/\/www.isdglobal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/20210910-gaming-reportintro.pdf."},{"key":"bibr40-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Department of Fair Employment and Housing v. Activision Blizzard, Inc. (Cal. Super. Ct., 2021). https:\/\/aboutblaw.com\/YJw."},{"key":"bibr41-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Doom (PC version) [Video game] (1993). id Software."},{"key":"bibr42-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Entertainment Software Association (2021). 2021\n                      Essential facts about the video games industry\n                      . https:\/\/www.theesa.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/08\/2021-Essential-Facts-About-the-Video-Game-Industry-1.pdf."},{"key":"bibr43-15554120231167214","first-page":"358","volume":"13","author":"Euteneuer J.","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gamevironments"},{"key":"bibr44-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/ppm0000280"},{"key":"bibr45-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Fisher M. (2021, April 30). From memes to race war: How extremists use popular culture to lure recruits.\n                      The Washington Post\n                      . Retrieved December 6, 2021, from https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/nation\/2021\/04\/30\/extremists-recruiting-culture-community\/."},{"key":"bibr46-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Grand Theft Auto III (Xbox version) [Video game] (2001). Rockstar Games."},{"key":"bibr47-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Grand Theft Auto IV (Xbox 360 version) [Video game] (2008). Rockstar Games."},{"key":"bibr48-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Grand Theft Auto: Vice City (PlayStation 2 version) [Video game] (2002). Rockstar Games."},{"key":"bibr49-15554120231167214","first-page":"59","volume-title":"Diversifying Barbie and Mortal Kombat: Intersectional perspectives and inclusive designs in gaming","author":"Gray K.","year":"2016"},{"key":"bibr50-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/15554120211073379"},{"key":"bibr51-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1215\/9780822372554-010"},{"key":"bibr52-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1478601X.2012.704723"},{"key":"bibr53-15554120231167214","first-page":"317","volume":"13","author":"Hammar E.","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gamevironments"},{"issue":"15","key":"bibr54-15554120231167214","first-page":"22","volume":"136","author":"Hansson H. M.","year":"2019","journal-title":"The Christian Century"},{"key":"bibr55-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1354856519860237"},{"key":"bibr56-15554120231167214","author":"Harrer S.","year":"2020","journal-title":"Simulation & Gaming"},{"key":"bibr57-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Hearts of Iron IV (PC version) [Video game] (2016). Paradox Interactive."},{"key":"bibr58-15554120231167214","author":"Hernandez P.","journal-title":"Polygon"},{"key":"bibr59-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hinduja S., Patchin J. W. (2021). State Bullying and Cyberbullying Laws. Cyberbullying.org. Retrieved December 10, 2021, from: https:\/\/cyberbullying.org\/pdfs\/2021_Bullying-and-Cyberbullying-Laws.pdf.","DOI":"10.5958\/2278-4853.2021.00970.8"},{"key":"bibr60-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctt2005rgq.14"},{"key":"bibr61-15554120231167214","volume-title":"A schema of right-wing extremism in the United States","author":"Jackson S.","year":"2019"},{"key":"bibr62-15554120231167214","author":"Kamenetz A.","journal-title":"NPR"},{"key":"bibr63-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Khosravi R. (2017, April 12). Neo-Nazi gamers are modding their favorite titles to make them explicitly racist.\n                      Mic\n                      . Retrieved December 7, 2021, from https:\/\/www.mic.com\/articles\/173392\/neo-nazi-gamers-are-modding-their-favorite-titles-to-make-them-explicitly-racist."},{"key":"bibr64-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Killzone (PlayStation 2 version) [Video game] (2004). Sony Interactive Entertainment."},{"key":"bibr65-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315569215-13"},{"key":"bibr66-15554120231167214","volume-title":"Radicalisation Awareness Network (Policy Support), European Commission","author":"Lakhani S.","year":"2021"},{"key":"bibr67-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/pn.36.3.0026"},{"key":"bibr68-15554120231167214","volume-title":"Culture warlords: My journey into the dark web of white supremacy","author":"Lavin T.","year":"2020"},{"key":"bibr69-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Lees M. (2016, December 1). What Gamergate should have taught us about the \u2018alt-right\u2019. The Guardian. Retrieved December 6, 2021, from https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2016\/dec\/01\/gamergate-alt-right-hate-trump."},{"key":"bibr70-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3138\/sim.3.4.002"},{"key":"bibr71-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1555412005281910"},{"key":"bibr72-15554120231167214","volume-title":"Dog whistle politics: How coded racial appeals have reinvented racism and wrecked the middle class","author":"Lopez H.","year":"2015"},{"key":"bibr73-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Makuch B. (2019, November 6). Congressman shames blizzard for letting Nazis run wild in \u2018World of warcraft\u2019. VICE.com. Retrieved December 7, 2021, from https:\/\/www.vice.com\/en\/article\/3kxw4b\/congressman-lou-correa-shames-blizzard-for-letting-nazis-run-wild-in-world-of-warcraft."},{"key":"bibr74-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-28262-2"},{"key":"bibr75-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Martin T. (2017). Dissecting Trump\u2019s Most Rabid Online Following. 538.com. Retrieved December 7, 2021, from https:\/\/fivethirtyeight.com\/features\/dissecting-trumps-most-rabid-online-following\/."},{"key":"bibr76-15554120231167214","unstructured":"McKeand K. (2021, March 8). Can video games help tackle extremism?\n                      TheGamer.com\n                      . Retrieved December 6, 2021, from https:\/\/www.thegamer.com\/can-video-games-help-tackle-extremism\/."},{"key":"bibr77-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Medal of Honor (PlayStation version) [Video game] (1999). Electronic Arts."},{"key":"bibr78-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Minecraft (PC version) [Video game] (2011). Mojang Studios."},{"key":"bibr79-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.24193\/ekphrasis.20.9"},{"key":"bibr80-15554120231167214","volume-title":"Kill all normies: Online culture wars from 4chan and Tumblr to Trump and the alt-right","author":"Nagle A.","year":"2017"},{"key":"bibr81-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9781444361506.wbiems159"},{"key":"bibr82-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Ong S. (2016, October 18). The video game industry's problem with racial diversity.\n                      Newsweek\n                      . Retrieved December 7, 2021, from https:\/\/www.newsweek.com\/2016\/10\/21\/video-games-race-black-protagonists-509328.html."},{"key":"bibr83-15554120231167214","volume-title":"Tetris (PC version) [Video game]","author":"Pajitnov A.","year":"1984"},{"key":"bibr84-15554120231167214","first-page":"65","volume":"862","author":"Peckford A.","year":"2020","journal-title":"A Closer Look in Unusual Times: Criminological Perspectives from Crim"},{"key":"bibr85-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Pfister E. (2018). Keep your politics out of my games. Keynote Address to the 2018 FROG Conference, Vienna, Austria. Retrieved December 9, 2021, from https:\/\/spielkult.hypotheses.org\/1566."},{"key":"bibr86-15554120231167214","volume-title":"Crash Override: How gamergate (nearly) destroyed my life, and how we can win the fight against online hate","author":"Quinn Z.","year":"2017"},{"key":"bibr87-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1555412014567228"},{"key":"bibr88-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Resident Evil (PC version) [Video game] (1996). Capcom."},{"key":"bibr89-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Richter F. (2020, Sept 22). Gaming: The most lucrative entertainment industry by far. Statista. https:\/\/www.statista.com\/chart\/22392\/global-revenue-of-selected-entertainment-industry-sectors\/."},{"key":"bibr90-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctvhrcz0v"},{"key":"bibr91-15554120231167214","first-page":"1","author":"Robinson N.","year":"2020","journal-title":"Studies in Conflict & Terrorism"},{"key":"bibr92-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Roblox (PC version) [Video game] (2006). Roblox Corporation."},{"key":"bibr93-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Roose K. (2017, August 15). This was the Alt-Right\u2019s favorite chat app. Then Came Charlottesville.\n                      The New York Times\n                      . Retrieved December 10, 2021, from https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2017\/08\/15\/technology\/discord-chat-app-alt-right.html."},{"key":"bibr94-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.86.3.638"},{"key":"bibr95-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.7560\/VLT8106","volume":"81","author":"Russworm T. M.","year":"2018","journal-title":"Velvet Light Trap: A Critical Journal of Film & Television"},{"key":"bibr96-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Saints Row 2 (PC version) [Video game] (2008). THQ."},{"key":"bibr97-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Saints Row (PC version) [Video game] (2006). THQ."},{"key":"bibr98-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429345616-10"},{"issue":"1","key":"bibr99-15554120231167214","first-page":"1","volume":"17","author":"Selepak A.","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture"},{"key":"bibr100-15554120231167214","first-page":"158","author":"Squire M.","journal-title":"13th ACM Web Science Conference 2021"},{"key":"bibr101-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1369801X.2019.1628655"},{"key":"bibr102-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Theriault L. (2019). Hateful rhetoric and online platforms foster environments where hate can grow in the United States.\n                      University of Maine Racial Justice Collection.\n                      Retrieved December 9, 2021, from https:\/\/digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu\/cgi\/viewcontent.cgi?article=1204&context=racial_justice."},{"key":"bibr103-15554120231167214","unstructured":"The Sims (PC version) [Video game] (2000). Electronic Arts."},{"key":"bibr104-15554120231167214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10304312.2015.1025362"},{"key":"bibr105-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Vaux P., Gallagher A., Davey J. (2021). Gaming and Extremism. The Extreme Right on Steam. Institute for Strategic Dialogue. Retrieved December 9, 2021, from: https:\/\/www.isdglobal.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/08\/02-revised-gaming-report-steam.pdf."},{"key":"bibr106-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Wheelmaker N. (2018).\n                      Angry Goy II\n                      . https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/angrygoyii-gametrailer."},{"key":"bibr107-15554120231167214","unstructured":"Winkie L. (2018, June 6). The struggle over gamers who use mods to create racist alternate histories.\n                      Kotaku\n                      . Retrieved December 7, 2021, from https:\/\/kotaku.com\/the-struggle-over-gamers-who-use-mods-to-create-racist-1826606138."},{"key":"bibr108-15554120231167214","unstructured":"World of Warcraft (PC version) [Video game] (2004). 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