{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T21:04:15Z","timestamp":1793135055401,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":83,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,1]],"date-time":"2021-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1630454400000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Perspect Psychol Sci"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Harvard psychiatrist Chester Pierce\u2019s conception of \u201csubtle and stunning\u201d daily racial offenses, or microaggressions, remains salient even 50 years after it was introduced. Microaggressions were defined further by Sue and colleagues in 2007, and this construct has found growing utility as the deleterious effects of microaggressions on the health of people of color continues to mount. Many studies seek to frame microaggressions in terms of a taxonomic analysis of offender behavior to inform the assessment of and interventions for the reduction of racial microaggressions. This article proposes an expansion and refinement of Sue et al.\u2019s taxonomy to better inform such efforts. We conducted a review of published articles that focused on qualitative and quantitative findings of microaggressions taxonomies ( N = 32). Sixteen categories of racial microaggressions were identified, largely consistent with the original taxonomy of Sue et al. but expanded in several notable ways. Building on our prior research, other researchers supported such new categories as tokenism, connecting via stereotypes, exoticization and eroticization, and avoidance and distancing. The least studied categories included the denial of individual racism from Sue et al., and newer categories included reverse-racism hostility, connecting via stereotypes, and environmental attacks. A unified language of microaggressions may improve understanding and measurement of this important construct.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691621994247","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,9]],"date-time":"2021-09-09T08:00:37Z","timestamp":1631174437000},"page":"991-1007","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":161,"title":["After Pierce and Sue: A Revised Racial Microaggressions Taxonomy"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0095-3277","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Monnica T.","family":"Williams","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, University of Ottawa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew D.","family":"Skinta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Roosevelt University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ren\u00e9e","family":"Martin-Willett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder"},{"name":"Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado Boulder"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/ACM.0000000000003077"},{"key":"bibr2-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2017.303691"},{"key":"bibr3-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0035734"},{"key":"bibr4-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/hea0000674"},{"key":"bibr5-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3386\/w23415"},{"key":"bibr6-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3386\/w27288"},{"key":"bibr7-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10447-018-9345-z"},{"key":"bibr8-1745691621994247","first-page":"193","volume-title":"Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics, and impact","author":"Capodilupo C. M.","year":"2010"},{"key":"bibr9-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1745-9125.12106"},{"key":"bibr10-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0036573"},{"key":"bibr11-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2014.08.006"},{"key":"bibr12-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0739986310362371"},{"key":"bibr13-1745691621994247","unstructured":"Crowe C. (2018, September 14). What happened when one university moved a Confederate statue to a museum. Chronicle of Higher Education. https:\/\/www.chronicle.com\/article\/what-happened-when-one-university-moved-a-confederate-statue-to-a-museum"},{"key":"bibr14-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/07418825.2016.1236204"},{"key":"bibr15-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10665684.2017.1336498"},{"key":"bibr16-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0277-9536(03)00211-9"},{"key":"bibr17-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0095798412443259"},{"key":"bibr18-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11256-015-0326-9"},{"key":"bibr19-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4135\/9781483345239"},{"key":"bibr20-1745691621994247","first-page":"202","volume-title":"A companion to racial and ethnic studies","author":"Essed P.","year":"2002"},{"key":"bibr21-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/swr\/svx023"},{"key":"bibr22-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260518774305"},{"key":"bibr23-1745691621994247","unstructured":"Garcia G. A., Johnston-Guerrero M. P. (2015). Challenging the utility of a racial microaggressions framework through a systematic review of racially biased incidents on campus. Journal of Critical Scholarship on Higher Education and Student Affairs, 2(1), Article 4. https:\/\/ecommons.luc.edu\/jcshesa\/vol2\/iss1\/4"},{"key":"bibr24-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15377938.2019.1579140"},{"key":"bibr25-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0028956"},{"key":"bibr26-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2161-1912.2011.tb00147.x"},{"key":"bibr27-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0035404"},{"key":"bibr28-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10665684.2012.698193"},{"key":"bibr29-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0036438"},{"key":"bibr30-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1982093"},{"key":"bibr31-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15313204.2016.1269710"},{"key":"bibr32-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10964-012-9756-9"},{"key":"bibr33-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2008.143446"},{"key":"bibr34-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7709\/jnegroeducation.82.4.0382"},{"key":"bibr35-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12552-020-09298-w"},{"key":"bibr36-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12552-017-9214-0"},{"key":"bibr37-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/cou0000305"},{"key":"bibr38-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/soin.12168"},{"issue":"1","key":"bibr39-1745691621994247","first-page":"74","volume":"69","author":"Lewis A. E.","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Negro Education"},{"key":"bibr40-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/cou0000062"},{"key":"bibr41-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/medu.13302"},{"key":"bibr42-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/cdp0000201"},{"key":"bibr43-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/0002831212468048"},{"key":"bibr44-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1368430212468170"},{"issue":"1","key":"bibr45-1745691621994247","first-page":"133","volume":"24","author":"Murty K. S.","year":"2017","journal-title":"Race, Gender & Class"},{"key":"bibr46-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0025193"},{"key":"bibr47-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/14093-000"},{"key":"bibr48-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3998\/jmmh.10381607.0006.203"},{"key":"bibr49-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1741-3729.2012.00752.x"},{"key":"bibr50-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2161-1912.2012.00015.x"},{"key":"bibr51-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/csd.2014.0051"},{"key":"bibr52-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/sltb.12150"},{"key":"bibr53-1745691621994247","first-page":"265","volume-title":"The Black seventies: An extending horizon book","author":"Pierce C.","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr54-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0037285"},{"key":"bibr55-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15332640.2017.1288191"},{"key":"bibr56-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10615-019-00711-5"},{"issue":"3","key":"bibr57-1745691621994247","first-page":"221","volume":"9","author":"Robinson-Wood T.","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Ethnographic & Qualitative Research"},{"key":"bibr58-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2007.01984.x"},{"key":"bibr59-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1556-6676.1999.tb02439.x"},{"key":"bibr60-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00224545.1992.9924713"},{"key":"bibr61-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0002764207307742"},{"key":"bibr62-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0013161X07307793"},{"key":"bibr63-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-081715-074226"},{"key":"bibr64-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/0013189X15580314"},{"key":"bibr65-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691621995740"},{"key":"bibr66-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/1099-9809.13.1.72"},{"key":"bibr67-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.62.4.271"},{"key":"bibr68-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1556-6678.2008.tb00517.x"},{"key":"bibr69-1745691621994247","volume-title":"Microaggressions in everyday life","author":"Sue D. W.","year":"2020"},{"key":"bibr70-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0027658"},{"key":"bibr71-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13562517.2017.1359158"},{"key":"bibr72-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3122\/jabfm.2015.02.140194"},{"key":"bibr73-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167211416130"},{"key":"bibr74-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00918369.2017.1324679"},{"issue":"4","key":"bibr75-1745691621994247","first-page":"265","volume":"39","author":"Williams M.","year":"2019","journal-title":"Directions in Psychiatry"},{"key":"bibr76-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.newideapsych.2019.05.002"},{"key":"bibr77-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691619827499"},{"key":"bibr78-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beth.2020.09.001"},{"key":"bibr79-1745691621994247","first-page":"25","volume-title":"Psychology of culture","author":"Williams M. T.","year":"2012"},{"key":"bibr80-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-017-0440-3"},{"key":"bibr81-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/vio0000212"},{"issue":"111","key":"bibr82-1745691621994247","first-page":"1","volume":"8","author":"Williams M. T.","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Psychology"},{"key":"bibr83-1745691621994247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12552-013-9107-9"}],"container-title":["Perspectives on Psychological Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/1745691621994247","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/1745691621994247","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/1745691621994247","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T08:42:42Z","timestamp":1777711362000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/1745691621994247"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]},"references-count":83,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/1745691621994247"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1745691621994247","relation":{},"ISSN":["1745-6916","1745-6924"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1745-6916","type":"print"},{"value":"1745-6924","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]}}}