{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,6]],"date-time":"2026-09-06T04:10:34Z","timestamp":1788667834666,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":102,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788393600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788393600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002920","name":"Research Grants Council, University Grants Committee","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["24619224"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24619224"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002920","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Perspect Psychol Sci"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The WEIRD framework\u2014Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic\u2014introduced in 2010 by Henrich et al. drew widespread attention to psychology\u2019s overreliance on Western samples and its assumption of universal human psychology. However, in this article I argue that the framework\u2019s popularization\u2014particularly in work explaining the origins and consequences of WEIRD psychology\u2014has paradoxically generated a new form of exceptionalism. By designating Western populations as psychologically \u201cpeculiar,\u201d the framework inadvertently maintains the West as the central reference point against which human variation is measured. I identify three mechanisms through which this occurs. First, the WEIRD acronym itself embeds developmental assumptions: Its components connote achievements rather than neutral differences, while implicitly defining non-WEIRD populations through deficit (uneducated, undeveloped, poor, authoritarian). Second, the comparative structure positions WEIRD populations as the persistent baseline, with non-WEIRD psychologies understood through their deviation from Western patterns rather than as autonomous systems. Third, cultural-historical accounts tracing WEIRD psychology to internal European developments risk obscuring how extraction and violence constituted the material conditions for Western institutional dominance. I propose that genuinely decentering Western psychology requires moving beyond binary comparative frameworks, developing research programs that engage diverse cultural psychologies on their own terms and transforming institutional structures that implicitly favor Western theoretical frameworks as unmarked universals.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/17456916261474830","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T18:05:48Z","timestamp":1788458748000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["\u201cWEIRDly Exceptional\u201d: Has Cultural Psychology Reproduced What It Sought to Critique?"],"prefix":"10.1177","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7677-6807","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karim","family":"Bettache","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Governance and Policy Science, Faculty of Social Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abarbanell L. Hauser M. D. (2010). Mayan morality: An exploration of permissible harms. Cognition 115(2) 207\u2013224. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cognition.2009.12.007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2009.12.007"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_1","volume-title":"Why nations fail: The origins of power, prosperity, and poverty","author":"Acemoglu D.","year":"2012","unstructured":"Acemoglu D., Robinson J. A. (2012). Why nations fail: The origins of power, prosperity, and poverty. Crown Business."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adams G. Dobles I. G\u00f3mez L. H. Kurti\u015f T. Molina L. E. (2015). Decolonizing psychological science: Introduction to the special thematic section. Journal of Social and Political Psychology 3(1) 213\u2013238. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5964\/jspp.v3i1.564","DOI":"10.5964\/jspp.v3i1.564"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adams G. Estrada-Villalta S. Ord\u00f3\u00f1ez L. H. G. (2018). The modernity\/coloniality of being: Hegemonic psychology as intercultural relations. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 62 13\u201322. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijintrel.2017.06.006","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijintrel.2017.06.006"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adams G. Osei-Tutu A. Affram A. A. (2020). Decolonial perspectives on psychology and development. In Worrell F. C. (Ed.) Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology. Oxford Academic. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/acrefore\/9780190236557.013.514","DOI":"10.1093\/acrefore\/9780190236557.013.514"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adjei S. B. (2019). Conceptualising personhood agency and morality for African psychology. Theory & Psychology 29(4) 484\u2013505. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0959354319857473","DOI":"10.1177\/0959354319857473"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_1","unstructured":"Al Obaedy R. (2025). Does the University of Groningen have a responsibility to redress its colonial history? [Bachelor\u2019s thesis University of Groningen]. University of Groningen Student Theses Repository. https:\/\/campus-fryslan.studenttheses.ub.rug.nl\/585\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arnett J. J. (2008). The neglected 95%: Why American psychology needs to become less American. American Psychologist 63(7) 602\u2013614. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0003-066x.63.7.602","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.63.7.602"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barrett H. C. (2020). Towards a cognitive science of the human: Cross-cultural approaches and their urgency. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 24(8) 620\u2013638. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tics.2020.05.007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2020.05.007"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barrett H. C. Bolyanatz A. Crittenden A. N. Fessler D. M. Fitzpatrick S. Gurven M. Henrich J. Kanovsky M. Kushnick G. Pisor A. Scelza B. A. Stich S. von Rueden C. Zhao W. Laurence S. (2016). Small-scale societies exhibit fundamental variation in the role of intentions in moral judgment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113(17) 4688\u20134693. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1522070113","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1522070113"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beattie P. Chen R. Bettache K. (2022). When left is right and right is left: The psychological correlates of political ideology in China. Political Psychology 43(3) 457\u2013488. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/pops.12776","DOI":"10.1111\/pops.12776"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_1","volume-title":"The chrysanthemum and the sword: Patterns of Japanese culture","author":"Benedict R.","year":"1946","unstructured":"Benedict R. (1946). The chrysanthemum and the sword: Patterns of Japanese culture. Houghton Mifflin."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bettache K. (2020). A call to action: The need for a cultural psychological approach to discrimination on the basis of skin color in Asia. Perspectives on Psychological Science 15(4) 1131\u20131139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1745691620904740","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691620904740"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bettache K. (2023). The WEIRD microcosm of microaggression research: Toward a cultural-psychological approach. Perspectives on Psychological Science 18(4) 743\u2013748. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/17456916221133826","DOI":"10.1177\/17456916221133826"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bettache K. (2024). Where is capitalism? Unmasking its hidden role in psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review 29(3) 215\u2013249. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/10888683241287570","DOI":"10.1177\/10888683241287570"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bettache K. (2025). Racial representation in psychology textbooks. Journal of Social Issues 81(3) e70018. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/josi.70018","DOI":"10.1111\/josi.70018"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/bjso.70044"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bettache K. Chiu C. Y. (2018). The populist effect: Threat and the handover of freedom. Personality and Individual Differences 130 102\u2013106. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.paid.2018.03.055","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2018.03.055"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bettache K. Chiu C. Y. (2019). Why American conservatives and individuals from traditionalist cultures may share a preference for group uniformity. Asian Journal of Social Psychology 22(3) 325\u2013330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ajsp.12356","DOI":"10.1111\/ajsp.12356"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bettache K. Chiu C. Y. Khan S. (2025). Geopolitical psychology: An emerging perspective. Journal of Social Issues 81(4) Article e70049. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/josi.70049","DOI":"10.1111\/josi.70049"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bettache K. Hamamura T. Amrani Idrissi J. Amenyogbo R. G. J. Chiu C. Y. (2019). Monitoring moral virtue: When the moral transgressions of in-group members are judged more severely. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 50(2) 268\u2013284. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0022022118814687","DOI":"10.1177\/0022022118814687"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bettache K. Travaglino A. G. Beattie P. (2026). Redefining power in social psychology. British Journal of Social Psychology 65(1) Article e70031. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/bjso.70031","DOI":"10.1111\/bjso.70031"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beyebach M. Neipp M. C. Solanes-Puchol \u00c1. Mart\u00edn-del-R\u00edo B. (2021). Bibliometric differences between WEIRD and non-WEIRD countries in the outcome research on solution-focused brief therapy. Frontiers in Psychology 12 Article 754885. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.754885","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.754885"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_25_1","volume-title":"Decolonizing psychology: Globalization, social justice, and Indian youth identities","author":"Bhatia S.","year":"2018","unstructured":"Bhatia S. (2018). Decolonizing psychology: Globalization, social justice, and Indian youth identities. Oxford University Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bou Zeineddine F. Saab R. L\u00e1\u0161ticov\u00e1 B. Kende A. Ayanian A. H. (2022). \u201cSome uninteresting data from a faraway country\u201d: Inequity and coloniality in international social psychological publications. Journal of Social Issues 78(2) 320\u2013345. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/josi.12481","DOI":"10.1111\/josi.12481"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_27_1","volume-title":"Koelies, planters en koloniale politiek: Het arbeidsregime op de grootlandbouwondernemingen aan Sumatra\u2019s Oostkust in het begin van de twintigste eeuw","author":"Breman J.","year":"2022","unstructured":"Breman J. (2022). Koelies, planters en koloniale politiek: Het arbeidsregime op de grootlandbouwondernemingen aan Sumatra\u2019s Oostkust in het begin van de twintigste eeuw [Coolies, planters, and colonial politics: The labor regime on the large agricultural enterprises on Sumatra\u2019s East Coast in the early twentieth century]. Royal Institute of Linguistics, Geography and Ethnology (Vol. 123). Brill."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780195396430.013.0005"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_29_1","volume-title":"Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial thought and historical difference","author":"Chakrabarty D.","year":"2000","unstructured":"Chakrabarty D. (2000). Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial thought and historical difference. Princeton University Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheon B. K. Melani I. Hong Y. Y. (2020). How USA-centric is psychology? An archival study of implicit assumptions of generalizability of findings to human nature based on origins of study samples. Social Psychological and Personality Science 11(7) 928\u2013937. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1948550620927269","DOI":"10.1177\/1948550620927269"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiao J. Y. Cheon B. K. (2010). The weirdest brains in the world. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 33(2\u20133) 88\u201390. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/s0140525x10000282","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X10000282"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clegg J. M. Wen N. J. Legare C. H. (2017). Is non-conformity WEIRD? Cultural variation in adults\u2019 beliefs about children\u2019s competency and conformity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 146(3) 428\u2013441. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/xge0000275","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0000275"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226114477.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Curry O. S. Mullins D. A. Whitehouse H. (2019). Is it good to cooperate? Testing the theory of morality-as-cooperation in 60 societies. Current Anthropology 60(1) 47\u201369. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1086\/701478","DOI":"10.1086\/701478"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1215\/9780822375265"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doi T. (1992). On the concept of amae. Infant Mental Health Journal 13(1) 7\u201311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/1097-0355(199221)13:1<7::AID-IMHJ2280130103>3.0.CO;2-E","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-0355(199221)13:1<7::AID-IMHJ2280130103>3.0.CO;2-E"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Enke B. (2019). Kinship cooperation and the evolution of moral systems. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 134(2) 953\u20131019. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/qje\/qjz001","DOI":"10.1093\/qje\/qjz001"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_38_1","volume-title":"The wretched of the earth","author":"Fanon F.","year":"2001","unstructured":"Fanon F. (2001). The wretched of the earth (Farrington C., Trans.). Penguin Books. (Original work published 1961)"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fuentes A. (2022). WEIRD Indeed but there is more to the story: Anthropological reflections on Henrich\u2019s \u201cThe Weirdest people in the world.\u201d Religion Brain & Behavior 12(3) 284\u2013290. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/2153599x.2021.1991458","DOI":"10.1080\/2153599X.2021.1991458"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_40_1","volume-title":"The interpretation of cultures","author":"Geertz C.","year":"1973","unstructured":"Geertz C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures. Basic Books."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gergen K. J. (1973). Social psychology as history. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 26(2) 309\u2013320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/h0034436","DOI":"10.1037\/h0034436"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gilens M. Page B. I. (2014). Testing theories of American politics: Elites interest groups and average citizens. Perspectives on Politics 12(3) 564\u2013581. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/s1537592714001595","DOI":"10.1017\/S1537592714001595"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_43_1","volume-title":"Honor and shame and the unity of the Mediterranean","author":"Gilmore D. D.","year":"1987","unstructured":"Gilmore D. D. (Ed.). (1987). Honor and shame and the unity of the Mediterranean (Special Publication No. 22). American Anthropological Association."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139171052"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-407236-7.00002-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4135\/9781526470317.n20"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_47_1","volume-title":"A brief history of neoliberalism","author":"Harvey D.","year":"2007","unstructured":"Harvey D. (2007). A brief history of neoliberalism. Oxford University Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_48_1","volume-title":"Cultural psychology","author":"Heine S. J.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Heine S. J. (2020). Cultural psychology (4th ed.). W. W. Norton.","edition":"4"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_49_1","volume-title":"The WEIRDest people in the world: How the West became psychologically peculiar and particularly prosperous","author":"Henrich J.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Henrich J. (2020). The WEIRDest people in the world: How the West became psychologically peculiar and particularly prosperous. Farrar, Straus and Giroux."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Henrich J. Boyd R. Bowles S. Camerer C. Fehr E. Gintis H. McElreath R. Alvard M. Barr A. Ensminger J. Henrich N. S. Hill K. Gil-White F. Gurven M. Marlowe F. W. Patton J. Q. Tracer D. (2005). \u201cEconomic man\u201d in cross-cultural perspective: Behavioral experiments in 15 small-scale societies. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 28(6) 795\u2013815. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/s0140525x05000142","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X05000142"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Henrich J. Heine S. J. Norenzayan A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 33(2\u20133) 61\u201383. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/s0140525x0999152x","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X0999152X"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14452\/MR-069-11-2018-04_1"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hwang K. K. (2000). Chinese relationalism: Theoretical construction and methodological considerations. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 30(2) 155\u2013178. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1468-5914.00124","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-5914.00124"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hwang K. K. (2006). Moral face and social face: Contingent self-esteem in Confucian society. International Journal of Psychology 41(4) 276\u2013281. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/00207590544000040","DOI":"10.1080\/00207590544000040"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J\u00f6ns H. (2016). The University of Cambridge academic expertise and the British empire 1885\u20131962. Environment and Planning A 48(1) 94\u2013114. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0308518x15594802","DOI":"10.1177\/0308518X15594802"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kitayama S. Salvador C. E. (2024). Cultural psychology: Beyond east and west. Annual Review of Psychology 75(1) 495\u2013526. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-psych-021723-063333","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-021723-063333"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kitayama S. Salvador C. E. Nanakdewa K. Rossmaier A. San Martin A. Savani K. (2022). Varieties of interdependence and the emergence of the Modern West: Toward the globalizing of psychology. American Psychologist 77(9) 991\u20131006. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/amp0001073","DOI":"10.1037\/amp0001073"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krys K. de Almeida I. Wasiel A. Vignoles V. L. (2025). WEIRD\u2013Confucian comparisons: Ongoing cultural biases in psychology\u2019s evidence base and some recommendations for improving global representation. American Psychologist 80(2) 247\u2013263. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/amp0001298","DOI":"10.1037\/amp0001298"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ledgerwood A. Lawson K. M. Kraus M. W. Vollhardt J. R. Remedios J. D. Westberg D. W. Uskul A. K. Adetula A. Leach C. W. Martinez J. E. Naumann L. P. Reddy G. Tate C. C. Todd A. R. Weltzien K. Buchanan N. Gonz\u00e1lez R. Montilla Doble L. J. Romero-Canyas R. . . . Zou L. X. (2024). Disrupting racism and global exclusion in academic publishing: Recommendations and resources for authors reviewers and editors. Collabra: Psychology 10(1) Article 121394. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1525\/collabra.121394","DOI":"10.1525\/collabra.121394"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee C. J. Sugimoto C. R. Zhang G. Cronin B. (2013). Bias in peer review. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 64(1) 2\u201317. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/asi.22784","DOI":"10.1002\/asi.22784"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leonard B. Smith S. M. (2021). Individualistic culture increases economic mobility in the United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118(37) Article e2107273118. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.2107273118","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2107273118"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leung A. K. Y. Cohen D. (2011). Within- and between-culture variation: Individual differences and the cultural logics of honor face and dignity cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 100(3) 507\u2013526. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0022151","DOI":"10.1037\/a0022151"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Markus H. R. Kitayama S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition emotion and motivation. Psychological Review 98(2) 224\u2013253. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/\/0033-295x.98.2.224","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.98.2.224"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_64_1","volume-title":"The ornament of the world: How Muslims, Jews, and Christians created a culture of tolerance in medieval Spain","author":"Menocal M. R.","year":"2009","unstructured":"Menocal M. R. (2009). The ornament of the world: How Muslims, Jews, and Christians created a culture of tolerance in medieval Spain. Hachette UK."},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_4_65_1","first-page":"93","article-title":"Japanese enryo-sasshi communication and the psychology of amae: Reconsideration and reconceptualization","volume":"25","author":"Miike Y.","year":"2003","unstructured":"Miike Y. (2003). Japanese enryo-sasshi communication and the psychology of amae: Reconsideration and reconceptualization. Keio Communication Review, 25(3), 93\u2013115.","journal-title":"Keio Communication Review"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_66_1","volume-title":"Enlightenment against empire","author":"Muthu S.","year":"2003","unstructured":"Muthu S. (2003). Enlightenment against empire. Princeton University Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_67_1","volume-title":"The intimate enemy: Loss and recovery of self under colonialism","author":"Nandy A.","year":"1983","unstructured":"Nandy A. (1983). The intimate enemy: Loss and recovery of self under colonialism. Oxford University Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_68_1","unstructured":"National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics. (2023). Publications output: U.S. trends and international comparisons (NSB-2023-33). National Science Foundation. https:\/\/ncses.nsf.gov\/pubs\/nsb202333"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nielsen M. Haun D. K\u00e4rtner J. Legare C. H. (2017). The persistent sampling bias in developmental psychology: A call to action. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 162 31\u201338. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jecp.2017.04.017","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2017.04.017"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Norenzayan A. Heine S. J. (2005). Psychological universals: What are they and how can we know? Psychological Bulletin 131(5) 763\u2013784. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-2909.131.5.763","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.131.5.763"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nwoye A. (2017). An Africentric theory of human personhood. Psychology in Society 54 42\u201366. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17159\/2309-8708\/2017\/n54a4","DOI":"10.17159\/2309-8708\/2017\/n54a4"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oyserman D. Coon H. M. Kemmelmeier M. (2002). Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin 128(1) 3\u201372. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-2909.128.1.3","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.128.1.3"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pelham B. Hardin C. Murray D. Shimizu M. Vandello J. (2022). A truly global non-WEIRD examination of collectivism: The Global Collectivism Index (GCI). Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology 3 Article 100030. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cresp.2021.100030","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cresp.2021.100030"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_74_1","volume-title":"Honour and shame: The values of Mediterranean society","author":"Peristiany J. G.","year":"1970","unstructured":"Peristiany J. G. (1970). Honour and shame: The values of Mediterranean society. University of Chicago Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pollet T. V. Saxton T. K. (2019). How diverse are the samples used in the journals \u2018Evolution & Human Behavior\u2019 and \u2018Evolutionary Psychology\u2019? Evolutionary Psychological Science 5(3) 357\u2013368. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40806-019-00192-2","DOI":"10.1007\/s40806-019-00192-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rad M. S. Martingano A. J. Ginges J. (2018). Toward a psychology of Homo sapiens: Making psychological science more representative of the human population. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115(45) 11401\u201311405. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1721165115","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1721165115"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_77_1","volume-title":"Black Marxism: The making of the Black radical tradition","author":"Robinson C. J.","year":"2000","unstructured":"Robinson C. J. (2000). Black Marxism: The making of the Black radical tradition (2nd ed.). University of North Carolina Press.","edition":"2"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robinson J. A. (2025). Nobel lecture: Paths to the periphery. American Economic Review 115(6) 1787\u20131817. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1257\/aer.115.6.1787","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.115.6.1787"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruffman T. Selcuk B. Yavus-Muren H. M. Arikan K. Tuncay I. (2024). An evaluation of the psychometric properties of the strengths and difficulties scale in Turkey: Implications for other non-WEIRD countries. Infant and Child Development 33(3) Article e2473. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/icd.2473","DOI":"10.1002\/icd.2473"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salter P. S. Adams G. Perez M. J. (2018). Racism in the structure of everyday worlds: A cultural-psychological perspective. Current Directions in Psychological Science 27(3) 150\u2013155. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0963721417724239","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721417724239"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"San Martin A. Schug J. Maddux W. W. (2019). Relational mobility and cultural differences in analytic and holistic thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 116(4) 495\u2013518. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/pspa0000142","DOI":"10.1037\/pspa0000142"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schug J. Yuki M. Maddux W. (2010). Relational mobility explains between- and within-culture differences in self-disclosure to close friends. Psychological Science 21(10) 1471\u20131478. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0956797610382786","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797610382786"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schulz J. F. Bahrami-Rad D. Beauchamp J. P. Henrich J. (2019). The Church intensive kinship and global psychological variation. Science 366(6466) Article eaau5141. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.aau5141","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau5141"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1057\/9781137069795"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_85_1","volume-title":"The influence of culture on visual perception","author":"Segall M. H.","year":"1966","unstructured":"Segall M. H., Campbell D. T., Herskovits M. J. (1966). The influence of culture on visual perception. Bobbs-Merrill."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139173728.002"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_87_1","volume-title":"Thinking through cultures: Expeditions in cultural psychology","author":"Shweder R. A.","year":"1991","unstructured":"Shweder R. A. (1991). Thinking through cultures: Expeditions in cultural psychology. Harvard University Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_88_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shweder R. A. Sullivan M. A. (1993). Cultural psychology: Who needs it? Annual Review of Psychology 44(1) 497\u2013523. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev.ps.44.020193.002433","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ps.44.020193.002433"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_89_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sullivan D. (2020). Social psychological theory as history: Outlining the critical-historical approach to theory. Personality and Social Psychology Review 24(1) 78\u201399. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1088868319883174","DOI":"10.1177\/1088868319883174"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_90_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Talhelm T. Zhang X. Oishi S. Shimin C. Duan D. Lan X. Kitayama S. (2014). Large-scale psychological differences within China explained by rice versus wheat agriculture. Science 344(6184) 603\u2013608. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.1246850","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1246850"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_91_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teo T. (2011). Empirical race psychology and the hermeneutics of epistemological violence. Human Studies 34(3) 237\u2013255. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10746-011-9179-8","DOI":"10.1007\/s10746-011-9179-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_92_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thalmayer A. G. Toscanelli C. Arnett J. J. (2021). The neglected 95% revisited: Is American psychology becoming less American? American Psychologist 76(1) 116\u2013129. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/amp0000622","DOI":"10.1037\/amp0000622"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_93_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomkins A. Zhang M. Heavlin W. D. (2017). Reviewer bias in single- versus double-blind peer review. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114(48) 12708\u201312713. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1707323114","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1707323114"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_94_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uskul A. K. Kirchner-H\u00e4usler A. Vignoles V. L. Rodriguez-Bail\u00f3n R. Castillo V. A. Cross S. E. Yal\u00e7\u0131n M. G. Harb C. Husnu S. Ishii K. Jin S. Karamaouna P. Kafetsios K. Kateri E. Matamoros-Lima J. Liu D. Miniesy R. Na J. \u00d6zkan Z. . . . Uchida Y. (2023). Neither Eastern nor Western: Patterns of independence and interdependence in Mediterranean societies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 125(3) 471\u2013495. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/pspa0000342","DOI":"10.1037\/pspa0000342"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_95_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/9781400831081"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_96_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vignoles V. L. Owe E. Becker M. Smith P. B. Easterbrook M. J. Brown R. Gonz\u00e1lez R. Didier N. Carrasco D. Cadena M. P. Lay S. Schwartz S. J. Des Rosiers S. E. Villamar J. A. Gavreliuc A. Zinkeng M. Kreuzbauer R. Baguma P. Martin M. . . . Bond M. H. (2016). Beyond the \u2018east\u2013west\u2019 dichotomy: Global variation in cultural models of selfhood. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 145(8) 966\u20131000. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/xge0000175","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0000175"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_97_1","volume-title":"Ebony and ivy: Race, slavery, and the troubled history of America\u2019s universities","author":"Wilder C. S.","year":"2013","unstructured":"Wilder C. S. (2013). Ebony and ivy: Race, slavery, and the troubled history of America\u2019s universities. Bloomsbury Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_98_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Winston A. S. (2011). Value neutrality and SPSSI: The quest for policy purity and legitimacy. Journal of Social Issues 67(1) 59\u201372. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1540-4560.2010.01683.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-4560.2010.01683.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_99_1","first-page":"209","volume-title":"The self-conscious emotions: Theory and research","author":"Wong Y.","year":"2007","unstructured":"Wong Y., Tsai J. (2007). Cultural models of shame and guilt. In Tracy J. L., Robins R. W., Tangney J. P. (Eds.), The self-conscious emotions: Theory and research (pp. 209\u2013223). Guilford Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_100_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.30875\/1cee73f9-en"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_101_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie W. Dang J. Lee C.-H. Pan W. Kung C. Liang J. Dong F. Ren Y. (2024). Academic development of Chinese social psychology: A citation analysis of social psychology articles published by Chinese scholars during 2006 to 2015. SAGE Open 14(4). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/21582440241292541","DOI":"10.1177\/21582440241292541"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_102_1","first-page":"19","volume-title":"Chinese societies and mental health","author":"Yang K. S.","year":"1995","unstructured":"Yang K. S. (1995). Chinese social orientation: An integrative analysis. In Lin T. Y., Tseng W. S., Yeh Y. K. (Eds.), Chinese societies and mental health (pp. 19\u201339). Oxford University Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_103_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang Y. B. Lin M. C. Nonaka A. Beom K. (2005). Harmony hierarchy and conservatism: A cross-cultural comparison of Confucian values in China Korea Japan and Taiwan. Communication Research Reports 22(2) 107\u2013115. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/00036810500130539","DOI":"10.1080\/00036810500130539"}],"container-title":["Perspectives on Psychological Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/17456916261474830","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/17456916261474830","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/17456916261474830","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,6]],"date-time":"2026-09-06T03:29:46Z","timestamp":1788665386000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/17456916261474830"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]]},"references-count":102,"alternative-id":["10.1177\/17456916261474830"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/17456916261474830","relation":{},"ISSN":["1745-6916","1745-6924"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1745-6916","type":"print"},{"value":"1745-6924","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]]},"article-number":"17456916261474830"}}