{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]],"date-time":"2026-01-29T05:41:33Z","timestamp":1769665293053,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":100,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]],"date-time":"2025-11-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762819200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Smart Environments"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Collaborative robots (cobots) have revolutionized industrial automation by enabling seamless human\u2013robot interaction in shared workspaces. These advanced robots are designed to work alongside humans, enhancing productivity, efficiency, and safety through sophisticated sensing and control capabilities. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of collaborative robotics, while introducing the Internet of Cobots (IoC) as a pivotal enabler of next-generation manufacturing systems. Through IoC capabilities, cobots are transforming industrial environments by implementing advanced safety protocols, enabling dynamic task allocation, and achieving seamless integration with human workers over 5G networks. This paper synthesizes the key technological advancements, starting from fundamental sensing, control, and actuation architectures to sophisticated artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms that enable human-like adaptability. Special attention is given to the industrial safety norms that enhance workplace safety of the IoC through real-time data sharing of job processing, human proximity, and potential hazards, while building trust in the decision-making of human\u2013robot collaboration. This review highlights emerging trends within the Industry 5.0 paradigm, where IoC-enabled cobots drive the human-centric and personalized manufacturing processes. By providing a comprehensive overview of networked cobots, their transformative impact, and regulatory frameworks, this review offers a valuable insight into the future of intelligent, adaptable, and human-centred industrial automation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/18761364251393221","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]],"date-time":"2025-11-11T16:53:14Z","timestamp":1762879994000},"page":"41-67","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["From collaborative robots to internet of cobots: Innovations, applications, and emerging trends"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2002-8951","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zeashan","family":"Khan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4058-2506","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abderraouf","family":"Maoudj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals"}]},{"given":"Samir","family":"Mekid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals"},{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10514-017-9677-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_1","first-page":"272","volume-title":"Fault tolerant multi-sensor fusion for multi-robot collaborative localization","author":"Al Hage J","year":"2016","unstructured":"Al Hage J, El Najjar ME, Pomorski D (2016) Fault tolerant multi-sensor fusion for multi-robot collaborative localization. In: 2016 IEEE International Conference on Multisensor Fusion and Integration for Intelligent Systems (MFI), IEEE, pp.272\u2013278."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s23218875"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIESTR60916.2024.10798381"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/info15100640"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2940887"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rcim.2020.102022"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/17298806231200095"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/IJOES-01-2024-0034"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/IR-04-2017-0070"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2023.3236448"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2024.128008"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1115\/IMECE1996-0367"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engappai.2017.08.004"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rcim.2024.102937"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.62411\/jcta.11408"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.54808\/ICSIT2023.01.92"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2021.758099"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/HRI.2013.6483603"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_21_1","unstructured":"Dual-arm YuMi\u00ae \u2013 IRB 14000 (2024) Available at: https:\/\/new.abb.com\/products\/robotics\/robots\/collaborative-robots\/yumi\/dual-arm (accessed 15 May 2024)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.promfg.2020.10.012"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CYBER46603.2019.9066625"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2020.06.013"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_25_1","first-page":"29","article-title":"A study on challenges in the implementation of human\u2013robot collaboration","volume":"1","author":"Gaede C","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gaede C, Ranz F, Hummel V, et al. (2020) A study on challenges in the implementation of human\u2013robot collaboration. Journal of Management in Engineering 1: 29\u201339.","journal-title":"Journal of Management in Engineering"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s22134950"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_27_1","volume-title":"Beyond Manual Dexterity: Designing a Multi-Fingered Robotic Hand for Grasping and Crawling","author":"Gao XY","year":"2024","unstructured":"Gao XY, Junge K, Hughes K, et al. (2024) Beyond Manual Dexterity: Designing a Multi-Fingered Robotic Hand for Grasping and Crawling. In: 40th Anniversary of the IEEE Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA@40), Netherlands."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICECCS51672.2020.00017"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_29_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in governance: Recent trends, risks, challenges, innovative frameworks and future directions","volume":"28","author":"Ghosh A","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ghosh A, Saini A, Barad H (2025) Artificial intelligence in governance: Recent trends, risks, challenges, innovative frameworks and future directions. AI & Society 28: 1\u201323.","journal-title":"AI & Society"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2024.02.144"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rcim.2020.101998"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cie.2021.107801"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ETFA61755.2024.10710349"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_34_1","unstructured":"Guidelines for the development and use of safety testing procedures in human-robot collaboration CEN Brussels 2022. Available at: https:\/\/www.cencenelec.eu\/media\/CEN-CENELEC\/CWAs\/RI\/cwa17835_2022.pdf."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720811417254"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01691864.2019.1636714"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-71151-1_19"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-control-071223-105834"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TASE.2023.3270207"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4271\/2016-01-0340"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_41_1","volume-title":"Collaborative Robots \u2013 How Robots Work alongside Humans","author":"IFR","year":"2024","unstructured":"IFR (2024) Collaborative Robots \u2013 How Robots Work alongside Humans. Frankfurt am Main: International Federation of Robotics."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_42_1","author":"ISO 10218-2:2025","year":"2025","unstructured":"ISO 10218-2:2025 (2025) Robotics \u2013 Safety Requirements \u2013 Part 2: Industrial Robot Applications and Robot Cells. Geneva: ISO.","journal-title":"Robotics \u2013 Safety Requirements \u2013 Part 2: Industrial Robot Applications and Robot Cells"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_43_1","unstructured":"Intuitive da Vinci \u2013 World class robotic surgical systems (2024) Available at: https:\/\/www.intuitive.com\/en-us\/products-and-services\/da-vinci (accessed 12 June 2024)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_44_1","unstructured":"International Organization for Standardization (2020) Robotics and robotic devices \u2013 Guidelines for the application of ISO 13482 in personal care robot safety (ISO\/TR 23482-1:2020). Available at: https:\/\/www.iso.org."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_45_1","unstructured":"International Organization for Standardization (2023) Information technology\u2013Artificial intelligence\u2013Management system for AI\u2013Requirements (ISO\/IEC 42001:2023). Available at: https:\/\/www.iso.org."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_46_1","unstructured":"International Organization for Standardization (2024) Information technology \u2013 Artificial intelligence (AI) \u2013 Use cases (ISO\/IEC TR 24030:2024). Available at: https:\/\/www.iso.org."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_47_1","unstructured":"Jatavallabha A (2024) Tesla's autopilot: ethics and tragedy arXiv preprint arXiv:2409.17380. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2409.17380."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_48_1","unstructured":"Jacobs L (2024) Collaborative robots in the workplace: Occupational geographic and demographic opportunities for technology adoption. Working Paper."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-60337-3_14"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kannan SS Venkatesh VL Min B-C (2023) SMART-LLM: Smart multi-agent robot task planning using large language models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2309.10062. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2309.10062.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS58592.2024.10802322"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/0951192X.2021.1992656"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compind.2018.02.009"},{"issue":"11","key":"e_1_3_4_53_1","first-page":"62","article-title":"Fault-tolerant control strategies for industrial robots: State of the art and future perspective on AI-based fault management","volume":"58","author":"Khan Z","unstructured":"Khan Z, Nasir A, Mekid S (2025\/08\/30 2025) Fault-tolerant control strategies for industrial robots: State of the art and future perspective on AI-based fault management. Artificial Intelligence Review 58(11): 62.","journal-title":"Artificial Intelligence Review"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICAISC56366.2023.10085428"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.55613\/jeet.v32i1.96"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifset.2018.05.011"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s21051899"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/15344843211068810"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4337\/9781035301003.00014"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2015.2430335"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364913496484"},{"issue":"6","key":"e_1_3_4_62_1","first-page":"75","article-title":"Collaborative robots open doors for manufacturing: In labor-constrained industries, collaborative robots could boost productivity","volume":"73","author":"Kurowski T","year":"2019","unstructured":"Kurowski T (2019) Collaborative robots open doors for manufacturing: In labor-constrained industries, collaborative robots could boost productivity. Plant Engineering 73(6): 75\u201377.","journal-title":"Plant Engineering"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.ads1204"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Libert K Mosconi E Cadieux N (2020) Human-machine interaction and human resource management perspective for collaborative robotics implementation and adoption.","DOI":"10.24251\/HICSS.2020.066"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2022.3153728"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2022.2041907"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIV.2024.3385755"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1051\/matecconf\/201929902008"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ARSO.2018.8625830"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_70_1","first-page":"71","volume-title":"International Conference on Computer-Human Interaction Research and Applications","author":"Menon C","year":"2021","unstructured":"Menon C, Carta S, Foerster F, et al. (2021) Improving public engagement with ethical complexities of assistive robots. In: International Conference on Computer-Human Interaction Research and Applications, Valletta, Malta. Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 71\u201394."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3313831.3376547"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00464-020-07818-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_73_1","volume-title":"QuadSWARM: a real-time autonomous surveillance system using multi quadcopters UAV","author":"Moiz AF","year":"2023","unstructured":"Moiz AF, Khawaja HM, Khan ZH, et al. (2023) QuadSWARM: a real-time autonomous surveillance system using multi quadcopters UAV. In: 1st International Conference on Advanced Innovations in Smart Cities (ICAISC-2023), Jeddah, KSA."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_74_1","unstructured":"Moley Robotics: The future is served. (2024). https:\/\/www.moley.com\/ (accessed 1 June 2024)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2022.3154033"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_76_1","unstructured":"PAL: Mobile Manipulators (2024) Available at: https:\/\/pal-robotics.com\/robot-category\/mobile-manipulators\/ (accessed 12 May 2024)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TASE.2021.3131011"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/70.954751"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2024\/2918089"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_80_1","volume-title":"ROBO-FLOCK: Development of a low-cost Leader-follower Swarm of Mobile Robots","author":"Rasheed MW","year":"2018","unstructured":"Rasheed MW, Tanveer R, Akhtar MU, et al. (2018) ROBO-FLOCK: Development of a low-cost Leader-follower Swarm of Mobile Robots. In: International Conference on Emerging Technologies (ICET)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.12785\/ijcds\/0906020"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/SLA.0000000000006572"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_83_1","first-page":"260","volume-title":"Collaborative robotics. Safety and ethical considerations","author":"R\u00f3\u017ca\u0144ska-Walczuk M","year":"2022","unstructured":"R\u00f3\u017ca\u0144ska-Walczuk M (2022) Collaborative robotics. Safety and ethical considerations. In: Machine Intelligence and Digital Interaction Conference.\u00a0Cham: Springer, pp.260\u2013269."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_84_1","first-page":"584","volume-title":"Towards safe and trustworthy social robots: Ethical challenges and practical issues","author":"Salem M","year":"2015","unstructured":"Salem M, Lakatos G, Amirabdollahian F, et al. (October 26-30, 2015) Towards safe and trustworthy social robots: Ethical challenges and practical issues. In: Social Robotics: 7th International Conference, ICSR 2015, Paris, France, 2015, pp.584\u2013593."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_85_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-07605-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/BFJ-07-2024-0705"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_87_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICETST49965.2020.9080724"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_88_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rcim.2020.101952"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_89_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3475584"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_90_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/robotics10020065"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_91_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-78513-0_14"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_92_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rcim.2019.101921"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_93_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4046238"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_94_1","unstructured":"Weber A (2014) Human-Robot Collaboration Comes of Age Assembly (online magazine). https:\/\/www.assemblymag.com\/articles\/91862-human-robot-collaboration-comes-of-age."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_95_1","unstructured":"Weber A (2015) Collaborative Robots Enter the Mainstream Assembly (online magazine). https:\/\/www.assemblymag.com\/articles\/93030-collaborative-robots-enter-the-mainstream."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_96_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/THMS.2021.3092684"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_97_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10207-021-00545-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_98_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12555-020-0920-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_99_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JSYST.2024.3433023"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_100_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/IJCHM-10-2019-0904"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_101_1","volume-title":"An Auction-Based Approach to Complex Task Allocation for Multirobot Teams","author":"Zlot RM","year":"2006","unstructured":"Zlot RM (2006) An Auction-Based Approach to Complex Task Allocation for Multirobot Teams. The Robotics Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA."}],"container-title":["Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Smart Environments"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/18761364251393221","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/18761364251393221","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/18761364251393221","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]],"date-time":"2026-01-28T17:47:23Z","timestamp":1769622443000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/18761364251393221"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]]},"references-count":100,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/18761364251393221"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/18761364251393221","relation":{},"ISSN":["1876-1364","1876-1372"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1876-1364","type":"print"},{"value":"1876-1372","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]]}}}