{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T18:56:32Z","timestamp":1785610592989,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,1]],"date-time":"2018-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1543622400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Academic Forensic Pathology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Injury to a fetus or neonate during delivery can be due to several factors involving the fetus, placenta, mother, and\/or instrumentation. Birth asphyxia results in hypoxia and ischemia, with global damage to organ systems. Birth trauma, that is mechanical trauma, can also cause asphyxia and\/or morbidity and mortality based on the degree and anatomic location of the trauma. Some of these injuries resolve spontaneously with little or no consequence while others result in permanent damage and severe morbidity. Unfortunately, some birth injuries are fatal. To understand the range of birth injuries, one must know the risk factors, clinical presentations, pathology and pathophysiology, and postmortem autopsy findings. It is imperative for clinicians and pathologists to understand the causes of birth injury; recognize the radiographic, gross, and microscopic appearances of these injuries; differentiate them from inflicted postpartum trauma; and work to prevent future cases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/1925362118821468","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,19]],"date-time":"2018-12-19T04:13:28Z","timestamp":1545192808000},"page":"788-864","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Birth Injury: Birth Asphyxia and Birth Trauma"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Kim A.","family":"Collins","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Edwina","family":"Popek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akangire G, Carter B. Birth injuries in neonates. Pediatr Rev. 2016 Nov; 37(11):451\u201362. PMID: 27803142. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1542\/pir.2015-0125.","DOI":"10.1542\/pir.2015-0125"},{"key":"bibr2-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaturvedi A, Chaturvedi A, Stanescu AL, Mechanical birthrelated trauma to the neonate: an imaging perspective. Insights Imaging. 2018 Feb; 9(1):103\u201318. PMID: 29356945. PMCID: PMC5825313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13244-017-0586-x.","DOI":"10.1007\/s13244-017-0586-x"},{"key":"bibr3-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LaRossa DA, Ellery SJ, Walker DW, Dickinson H. Understanding the full spectrum of organ injury following intrapartum asphyxia. Front Pediatr. 2017 Feb 17; 5:16. PMID: 28261573. PMCID: PMC5313537. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fped.2017.00016.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2017.00016"},{"key":"bibr4-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peesay M. Nuchal cord and its implications. Matern Health Neonatol Perinatol. 2017 Dec 6; 3:28. PMID: 29234502. PMCID: PMC5719938. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40748-017-0068-7.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40748-017-0068-7"},{"key":"bibr5-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vasa R, Dimitrov R, Patel S. Nuchal cord at delivery and perinatal outcomes: single-center retrospective study, with emphasis on fetal acid-base balance. Pediatr Neonatol. 2018 Oct; 59(5):439\u201347. PMID: 29581058. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.pedneo.2018.03.002.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pedneo.2018.03.002"},{"key":"#cr-split#-bibr6-1925362118821468.1","unstructured":"Gilliam-Krakauer M, Gowen CW. Birth Asphyxia. StatPearls [Internet]. [updated 2017 Feb 6"},{"key":"#cr-split#-bibr6-1925362118821468.2","unstructured":"cited 2018 Aug 29]. Available from: https:\/\/www.statpearls.com\/kb\/viewarticle\/18335\/."},{"key":"bibr7-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Graham EM, Ruis KA, Hartman AL, A systematic review of the role of intrapartum hypoxia-ischemia in the causation of neonatal encephalopathy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2008 Dec; 199(6):587\u201395. PMID: 19084096. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ajog.2008.06.094.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2008.06.094"},{"key":"bibr8-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Polglase GR, Ong T, Hillman NH. Cardiovascular alterations and multiorgan dysfunction after birth asphyxia. Clin Perinatol. 2016 Sep; 43(3):469\u201383. PMID: 27524448. PMCID: PMC4988334. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.clp.2016.04.006.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clp.2016.04.006"},{"key":"bibr9-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campbell AG, Dawes GS, Fishman AP, Hyman AI. Regional re distribution of blood flow in the mature fetal lamb. Circ Res. 1967 Aug; 21(2):229\u201335. PMID: 4952710. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1161\/01.res.21.2.229.","DOI":"10.1161\/01.RES.21.2.229"},{"key":"bibr10-1925362118821468","unstructured":"Neonatal encephalopathy and neurologic outcome. 2nd ed. Washington: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, American Academy of Pediatrics; 2014. 236 p."},{"key":"bibr11-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jenster M, Bonifacio SL, Ruel T, Maternal or neonatal infection: association with neonatal encephalopathy outcomes. Pediatr Res. 2014 Jul; 76(1):93\u20139. PMID: 24713817. PMCID: PMC4062582. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/pr.2014.47.","DOI":"10.1038\/pr.2014.47"},{"key":"bibr12-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Vries L, Groendendaal F. Patterns of neonatal hypoxic-ischaemic brain injury. Neuroradiology. 2010 Jun; 52(6):555\u201366. PMID: 20390260. PMCID: PMC2872019. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00234-010-0674-9.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00234-010-0674-9"},{"key":"bibr13-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-1-4160-3995-2.10008-1"},{"key":"bibr14-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murata Y, Itakura A, Matsuzawa K, Possible antenatal and perinatal related factors in development of cystic periventricular leukomalacia. Brain Dev. 2005 Jan; 27(1):17\u201321. PMID: 15626536. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.braindev.2004.02.011.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.braindev.2004.02.011"},{"key":"bibr15-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nelson K, Lynch JK. Stroke in newborn infants. Lancet Neurol. 2004 Mar; 3(3):150\u20138. PMID: 14980530. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S1474-4422(04)00679-9.","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(04)00679-9"},{"key":"bibr16-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei Y, Xu J, Xu T, Left ventricular systolic function of newborns with asphyxia evaluated by tissue Doppler imaging. Pediatr Cardiol. 2009 Aug; 30(6):741\u20136. PMID: 19340476. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00246-009-9421-6.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00246-009-9421-6"},{"key":"bibr17-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beath SV. Hepatic function and physiology in the newborn. Semin Neonatol. 2003 Oct; 8(5):337\u201346. PMID: 15001122. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S1084-2756(03)00066-6.","DOI":"10.1016\/S1084-2756(03)00066-6"},{"key":"bibr18-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chessells JM, Wigglesworth JS. Coagulation studies in severe birth asphyxia. Arch Dis Child. 1971 Jun; 46(247):253\u20136. PMID: 5090658. PMCID: PMC1647687. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/adc.46.247.253.","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.46.247.253"},{"key":"bibr19-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chadd MA, Elwood PC, Gray OP, Muxworthy SM. Coagulation defects in hypoxic full-term newborn infants. Br Med J. 1971 Nov 27; 4(5786):516\u20138. PMID: 5126955. PMCID: PMC1799783. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmj.4.5786.516.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.4.5786.516"},{"key":"bibr20-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neary E, McCallion N, Kevane B, Coagulation indices in very preterm infants from cord blood and postnatal samples. J Thromb Haemost. 2015 Nov; 13(11):2021\u201330. PMID: 26334448. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/jth.13130.","DOI":"10.1111\/jth.13130"},{"key":"bibr21-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christensen RD, Baer VL, Yaish HM. Thrombocytopenia in late preterm and term neonates after perinatal asphyxia. Transfusion. 2015 Jan; 55(1):187\u201396. PMID: 25082082. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/trf.12777.","DOI":"10.1111\/trf.12777"},{"key":"bibr22-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saxonhouse MA, Rimsza LM, Stevens G, Effects of hypoxia on megakaryocyte progenitors obtained from the umbilical cord blood of term and preterm neonates. Biol Neonate. 2006; 89(2):104\u20138. PMID: 16192692. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1159\/000088561.","DOI":"10.1159\/000088561"},{"key":"bibr23-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vanpee M, Blennow M, Linne T, Renal function in very low birth weight infants: normal maturity reached during early childhood. J Pediatr. 1992 Nov; 121(5 Pt 1):784\u20138. PMID: 1432434. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0022-3476(05)81916-x.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(05)81916-X"},{"key":"bibr24-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saikumar P, Venkatachalam MA. Role of apoptosis in hypoxic\/ischemic damage in the kidney. Semin Nephrol. 2003 Nov; 23(6):511\u201321. PMID: 14631559. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1053\/s0270-9295(03)00130-x.","DOI":"10.1053\/S0270-9295(03)00130-X"},{"key":"bibr25-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gluckman PD, Watt JS, Azzopardi D, Selective head cooling with mild systemic hypothermia after neonatal encephalopathy: multicenter randomized trial. Lancet. 2005 Feb 19-25; 365(9460):663\u201370. PMID: 15721471. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)17946-X.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)70932-6"},{"key":"bibr26-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sakar S, Barks JD, Bhagat I, Donn SM. Effects of therapeutic hypothermia on multiorgan dysfunction in asphyxiated newborns: wholebody cooling versus selective head cooling. J Perinatol. 2009 Aug; 29(8):558\u201363. PMID: 19322190. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/jp.2009.37.","DOI":"10.1038\/jp.2009.37"},{"key":"bibr27-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scott H. Outcome of very severe birth asphyxia. Arch Dis Child. 1976 Sep; 51(9):712\u20136. PMID: 1033733. PMCID: PMC1546242. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/adc.51.9.712.","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.51.9.712"},{"key":"bibr28-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rabelo NN, Matushita H, Cardeal DD. Traumatic brain lesions in newborns. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2017 Mar; 75(3):180\u20138. PMID: 28355327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1590\/0004-282X20170016.","DOI":"10.1590\/0004-282x20170016"},{"key":"bibr29-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huisman TAGM, Phelps T, Bosemani T, Parturitional injury of the head and neck. J Neuroimaging. 2015 Mar-Apr; 25(2):151\u201366. PMID: 25040483. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/jon.12144.","DOI":"10.1111\/jon.12144"},{"key":"bibr30-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-61779-403-2_47"},{"key":"bibr31-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brouwer AJ, Groenendaal F, Koopman C, Intracranial hemorrhage in full-term newborns: a hospital-based cohort study. Neuroradiology. 2010 Jun; 52(6):567\u201376. PMID: 20393697. PMCID: PMC2872016. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00234-010-0698-1.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00234-010-0698-1"},{"key":"bibr32-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Josephsen JB, Kemp J, Elbabaa SK, Al-Hosni M. Life threatening neonatal epidural hematoma caused by precipitous vaginal delivery. Am J Case Rep. 2015 Jan 30; 16:50\u20132. PMID: 25633886. PMCID: PMC4315626. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.12659\/AJCR.892506.","DOI":"10.12659\/AJCR.892506"},{"key":"bibr33-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong HS, Lee JY. Intracranial hemorrhage in term neonates. Childs Nerv Syst. 2018 Jun; 34(6):1135\u201343. PMID: 29637304. PMCID: PMC5978839. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00381-018-3788-8.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00381-018-3788-8"},{"key":"bibr34-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fernando S, Obaldo RE, Walsh IR, Lowe LH. Neuroimaging of non accidental head trauma: pitfalls and controversies. Pediatr Radiol. 2008 Aug; 38(8):827\u201338. PMID: 18176805. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00247-007-0729-1.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00247-007-0729-1"},{"key":"bibr35-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Noetzel MJ. Perinatal trauma and cerebral palsy. Clin Perinatol. 2006 Jun; 33(2):355\u201366. PMID: 16765729. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.clp.2006.03.003.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clp.2006.03.003"},{"key":"bibr36-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hughes LA, May K, Talbot JF, Parsons MA. Incidence, distribution, and duration of birth-related retinal hemorrhages: a prospective study. J AAPOS. 2006 Apr; 10(2):102\u20136. PMID: 16678742. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jaapos.2005.12.005.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaapos.2005.12.005"},{"key":"bibr37-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao Q, Zhang Y, Yang Y, Birth-related retinal hemorrhages in healthy full-term newborns and their relationship to maternal, obstetric, and neonatal risk factors. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2015 Jul; 253(7):1021\u20135. PMID: 25981120. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00417-015-3052-9.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-015-3052-9"},{"key":"bibr38-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Watts P, Maguire S, Kwok T, Newborn retinal hemorrhages: a systematic review. J AAPOS. 2013 Feb; 17(1):70\u20138. PMID: 23363882. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jaapos.2012.07.012.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaapos.2012.07.012"},{"key":"bibr39-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sheil AT, Collins KA. Fatal birth trauma due to an undiagnosed abdominal teratoma: case report and review of the literature. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2007 Jun; 28(2):121\u20137. PMID: 17525561. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/01.paf.0000257373.91126.0d.","DOI":"10.1097\/01.paf.0000257373.91126.0d"},{"key":"bibr40-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uhing MR. Management of birth injuries. Clin Perinatol. 2005 Mar; 32(1):19\u201338. PMID: 15777819. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.clp.2004.11.007.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clp.2004.11.007"},{"key":"bibr41-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parker LA. Part 2: birth trauma: injuries to the intraabdominal organs, peripheral nerves, and skeletal system. Adv Neonatal Care. 2006 Feb; 6(1):7\u201314. PMID: 16458246. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.adnc.2005.11.002.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adnc.2005.11.002"},{"key":"bibr42-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Somashekar DK, Di Pietro MA, Joseph JR, Utility of ultrasound in noninvasive preoperative workup of neonatal brachial plexus palsy. Pediatr Radiol. 2016 May; 46(5):695\u2013703. PMID: 26718200. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00247-015-3524-4.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00247-015-3524-4"},{"key":"bibr43-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basha A, Amarin Z, Abu-Hassan F. Birth-associated long-bone fractures. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2013 Nov; 123(2):127\u201330. PMID: 23992623. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijgo.2013.05.013.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijgo.2013.05.013"},{"key":"bibr44-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walters MM, Forbes PW, Buonomo C, Kleinman PK. Healing patterns of clavicular birth injuries as a guide to fracture dating in cases of possible infant abuse. Pediatri Radiol. 2014 Oct; 44(10):1224\u20139. PMID: 24777389. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00247-014-2995-z.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00247-014-2995-z"},{"key":"bibr45-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tiboni S, Abdulmajid U, Pooboni S, Spontaneous splenic hemorrhage in the newborn. European J Pediatr Surg Rep. 2015 Dec; 3(2):71\u20133. PMID: 26788451. PMCID: PMC4712061. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1055\/s-0035-1564610.","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0035-1564610"},{"key":"bibr46-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hui CM, Tsui KY. Splenic rupture in a newborn. J Pediatr Surg. 2002 Apr; 37(4):1\u20133. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1053\/jpsu.2002.31641.","DOI":"10.1053\/jpsu.2002.31641"},{"issue":"1","key":"bibr47-1925362118821468","first-page":"68","volume":"12","author":"Ting JY","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hong Kong Med J"},{"key":"bibr48-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gyurkovits Z, Maroti A, Renes L, Adrenal hemorrhage in term neonates: a retrospective study from the period 2001-2013. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2015; 28(17):2062\u20135. PMID: 25327176. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3109\/14767058.2014.976550.","DOI":"10.3109\/14767058.2014.976550"},{"key":"bibr49-1925362118821468","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-61779-403-2_21"}],"container-title":["Academic Forensic Pathology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/1925362118821468","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/1925362118821468","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/1925362118821468","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T08:53:22Z","timestamp":1777366402000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/1925362118821468"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,12]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,12]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/1925362118821468"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1925362118821468","relation":{},"ISSN":["1925-3621","1925-3621"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1925-3621","type":"print"},{"value":"1925-3621","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,12]]}}}