{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T06:32:19Z","timestamp":1782801139944,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,1]],"date-time":"2020-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1577836800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"France Strat\u00e9gie"},{"name":"MSH Paris Saclay","award":["17-MA07"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17-MA07"]}]},{"name":"Force Ouvri\u00e8re - Institut de recherches \u00e9conomiques et sociales"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Big Data &amp; Society"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper sheds light on the role of digital platform labour in the development of today\u2019s artificial intelligence, predicated on data-intensive machine learning algorithms. Focus is on the specific ways in which outsourcing of data tasks to myriad \u2018micro-workers\u2019, recruited and managed through specialized platforms, powers virtual assistants, self-driving vehicles and connected objects. Using qualitative data from multiple sources, we show that micro-work performs a variety of functions, between three poles that we label, respectively, \u2018artificial intelligence preparation\u2019, \u2018artificial intelligence verification\u2019 and \u2018artificial intelligence impersonation\u2019. Because of the wide scope of application of micro-work, it is a structural component of contemporary artificial intelligence production processes \u2013 not an ephemeral form of support that may vanish once the technology reaches maturity stage. Through the lens of micro-work, we prefigure the policy implications of a future in which data technologies do not replace human workforce but imply its marginalization and precariousness.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/2053951720919776","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,24]],"date-time":"2020-04-24T15:49:51Z","timestamp":1587743391000},"page":"205395172091977","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":187,"title":["The trainer, the verifier, the imitator: Three ways in which human platform workers support artificial intelligence"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1215-9145","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paola","family":"Tubaro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"LRI-TAU, CNRS, Universit\u00e9 Paris-Saclay, Inria, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio A","family":"Casilli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"I3, Telecom Paris, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marion","family":"Coville","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IAE, Universit\u00e9 de Poitiers, Poitiers Cedex, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.20160696"},{"key":"bibr2-2053951720919776","volume-title":"Introduction to Machine Learning","author":"Alpaydin E","year":"2014","edition":"3"},{"key":"bibr3-2053951720919776","volume-title":"Machine Learning: The New AI","author":"Alpaydin E","year":"2016"},{"key":"bibr5-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1257\/jep.29.3.3"},{"key":"bibr6-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.103.5.1553"},{"key":"bibr7-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2053951718819569"},{"key":"bibr10-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3917\/rfs.593.0475"},{"key":"bibr11-2053951720919776","volume-title":"The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies","author":"Brynjolfsson E","year":"2014"},{"key":"bibr12-2053951720919776","volume-title":"En attendant les robots: Enqu\u00eate sur le travail du clic","author":"Casilli A","year":"2019"},{"key":"bibr15-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108255882.024"},{"key":"bibr16-2053951720919776","first-page":"1","volume":"2016","author":"Chui M","year":"2016","journal-title":"McKinsey Q"},{"issue":"3","key":"bibr18-2053951720919776","volume":"37","author":"De Stefano V","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comparative Labor Law & Policy Journal"},{"key":"bibr19-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ilr.12160"},{"key":"bibr20-2053951720919776","volume-title":"The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World","author":"Domingos P","year":"2017"},{"key":"bibr21-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/10767.001.0001"},{"key":"bibr23-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techfore.2016.08.019"},{"key":"bibr25-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5210\/fm.v24i4.9913"},{"key":"bibr26-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.58704\/5zv9-7s84","volume-title":"Towards a Fairer Gig Economy","author":"Graham M","year":"2017"},{"key":"bibr27-2053951720919776","first-page":"2","volume":"9","author":"Gray M","year":"2017","journal-title":"Harvard Business Review"},{"key":"bibr28-2053951720919776","volume-title":"Ghost Work: How to Stop Silicon Valley from Building a New Global Underclass","author":"Gray M","year":"2019"},{"key":"bibr31-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444813511926"},{"key":"bibr32-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1215\/00382876-2831665"},{"key":"bibr33-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s42256-019-0088-2"},{"key":"bibr34-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techfore.2018.07.056"},{"key":"bibr35-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4135\/9781473909472"},{"key":"bibr40-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198797012.001.0001"},{"key":"bibr42-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctvhrcz0v"},{"issue":"3","key":"bibr45-2053951720919776","volume":"37","author":"Silberman S","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comparative Labor Law & Policy Journal"},{"key":"bibr46-2053951720919776","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40812-019-00121-1"}],"container-title":["Big Data &amp; 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