{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,13]],"date-time":"2026-05-13T20:27:38Z","timestamp":1778704058811,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,1]],"date-time":"2021-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1609459200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001659","name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["262513311"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["262513311"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001659","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003246","name":"Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["275-45-009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["275-45-009"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003246","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Big Data &amp; Society"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Social media platforms\u2019 digital advertising revenues depend considerably on partnerships. Business partnerships are endemic and essential to the business of platforms, yet their role remains relatively underexplored in the literature on platformisation and platform power. This article considers the significance of partnerships in the social media ecosystem to better understand how industry platforms, and the infrastructure they build, mediate and shape platform power and governance. We argue that partners contribute to \u2018platformisation\u2019 through their collective development of business-to-business platform infrastructures. Specifically, we examine how partners have integrated social media platforms with what we call the audience economy \u2013 an exceptionally complex global and interconnected marketplace of intermediaries involved in the creation, commodification, analysis, and circulation of data audiences for purposes including but not limited to digital advertising and marketing. We determined which relationships are involved, which are exclusive or shared, and identified key ecosystem partners. Further, we found that partners build and integrate extensive infrastructures for data-sourcing and media distribution, surfacing infrastructural and strategic sources and locations, or \u2018nodes\u2019, of power in this ecosystem. The empirical findings thus highlight the significance of partnerships and partner integrations and draw attention to the powerful industry players and intermediaries that remain largely invisible.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/20539517211025061","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,14]],"date-time":"2021-06-14T06:18:35Z","timestamp":1623651515000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":70,"title":["How partners mediate platform power: Mapping business and data partnerships in the social media ecosystem"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1401-0325","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernando N","family":"van der Vlist","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Collaborative Research Centre \u2018Media of Cooperation, University of Siegen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4327-4012","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anne","family":"Helmond","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Media Studies, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-20539517211025061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alaimo C and, Kallinikos J (2018) Objects, metrics and practices: An inquiry into the programmatic advertising ecosystem. In:\n                      Living with Monsters? Social Implications of Algorithmic Phenomena, Hybrid Agency, and the Performativity of Technology\n                      (eds U Schultze, M Aanestad, M M\u00e4hring, et al.), IS&O'18, San Francisco, 11\u201312 December, pp. 110\u2013123. Springer. DOI: 10.1007\/978-3-030-04091-8_9","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-04091-8_9"},{"key":"bibr2-20539517211025061","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0268396219881462"},{"key":"bibr3-20539517211025061","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1369118X.2017.1289232"},{"key":"bibr4-20539517211025061","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2056305120971632"},{"key":"bibr5-20539517211025061","unstructured":"Blustein A (2020) The Trade Desk is building version 2.0 of its Unified ID.\n                      Adweek\n                      , 28 July. Available at: www.adweek.com\/programmatic\/the-trade-desk-building-version-2-0-unified-id\/ (accessed 3 June 2021)."},{"key":"bibr6-20539517211025061","unstructured":"Braun J (2013) Transparent intermediaries: Building the infrastructures of connected viewing. In: Holt J and Sanson K (eds) Connected Viewing. London: Routledge, pp.124\u2013143."},{"key":"bibr7-20539517211025061","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14763\/2020.4.1506"},{"key":"bibr8-20539517211025061","unstructured":"Bruell A (2019) Twitter to remove third-party data from ad-buying system.\n                      Wall Street Journal\n                      , 7 August. Available at: www.wsj.com\/articles\/twitter-to-remove-third-party-data-from-ad-buying-system-11565201332 (accessed 3 June 2021)."},{"key":"bibr9-20539517211025061","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/41410417"},{"key":"bibr10-20539517211025061","unstructured":"Chen E (2017) Build beyond, A partner\u2019s perspective. Available at: https:\/\/developers.facebook.com\/ads\/blog\/post\/2017\/10\/25\/partner-perspective-blog-post\/ (accessed 3 June 2021)."},{"key":"bibr11-20539517211025061","unstructured":"Christl W, Spiekermann S (2016)\n                      Networks of Control: A Report on Corporate Surveillance, Digital Tracking, Big Data & Privacy\n                      . Austria: Facultas."},{"key":"bibr12-20539517211025061","unstructured":"Competition and Markets Authority (2020) Online platforms and digital advertising market study. Competition and Markets Authority cases, 1 July. Available at: www.gov.uk\/cma-cases\/online-platforms-and-digital-advertising-market-study (accessed 3 June 2021)."},{"key":"bibr13-20539517211025061","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444816657096"},{"key":"bibr14-20539517211025061","unstructured":"Cramer-Flood E (2020) Global digital ad spending update Q2 2020.\n                      eMarketer\n                      . Available at: www.emarketer.com\/content\/global-digital-ad-spending-update-q2-2020 (accessed 3 June 2021)."},{"key":"bibr15-20539517211025061","unstructured":"Dal Bianco V, Myll\u00e4rniemi V, Komssi M, et\u00a0al. (2014) The role of platform boundary resources in software ecosystems: A case study. In: WICSA\u201914 Proceedings, Sydney, Australia, 7\u201311 April, pp.11\u201320. USA: IEEE."},{"key":"bibr16-20539517211025061","unstructured":"Dance GJX, LaForgia M, Confessore N (2018) As Facebook raised a privacy wall, it carved an opening for tech giants.\n                      The New York Times\n                      , 18 December. Available at: www.nytimes.com\/2018\/12\/18\/technology\/facebook-privacy.html (accessed 3 June 2021)."},{"key":"bibr17-20539517211025061","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1057\/s41265-016-0033-3"},{"key":"bibr18-20539517211025061","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.25300\/MISQ\/2015\/39.1.10"},{"key":"bibr19-20539517211025061","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2856447"},{"key":"bibr20-20539517211025061","unstructured":"Facebook Investor Relations (2021) Facebook reports fourth quarter and full year 2020 result. Available at: https:\/\/investor.fb.com\/investor-news\/press-release-details\/2021\/Facebook-Reports-Fourth-Quarter-and-Full-Year-2020-Results\/default.aspx (accessed 3 June 2021)."},{"key":"bibr21-20539517211025061","unstructured":"Fisher C (2019) Twitter may have shared your data without permission.\n                      Engadget\n                      , 7 August. Available at: www.engadget.com\/2019-08-07-twitter-shared-user-data-advertisers.html (accessed 3 June 2021)."},{"key":"bibr22-20539517211025061","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jpim.12105"},{"key":"bibr23-20539517211025061","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444812472322"},{"issue":"7","key":"bibr24-20539517211025061","author":"Gerlitz C","year":"2019","journal-title":"Computational Culture"},{"key":"bibr25-20539517211025061","first-page":"528","volume":"12","author":"Gerlitz C","year":"2018","journal-title":"International Journal of Communication"},{"key":"bibr26-20539517211025061","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2056305115603080"},{"key":"bibr27-20539517211025061","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/24701475.2019.1593667"},{"key":"bibr28-20539517211025061","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18146\/tmg.434"},{"key":"bibr29-20539517211025061","unstructured":"Hvistendahl M (2021) How a Chinese surveillance broker became Oracle\u2019s \u2018partner of the year\u2019.\n                      The Intercept\n                      , 22 April. 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Available at: https:\/\/platformobservatory.eu\/news\/analytical-paper-transparency-in-the-business-to-business-commercial-relations-in-the-online-advertising-market\/ (accessed 3 June 2021)."},{"key":"bibr32-20539517211025061","unstructured":"Marshall C (2019) Ever wonder what the data provider network looks like?\n                      LinkedIn\n                      , 14 November. Available at: www.linkedin.com\/pulse\/ever-wonder-what-data-provider-network-looks-like-chris-marshall\/ (accessed 3 June 2021)."},{"key":"bibr33-20539517211025061","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10253866.2019.1661246"},{"key":"bibr34-20539517211025061","volume-title":"Weaponizing the Digital Influence Machine","author":"Nadler A","year":"2018"},{"key":"bibr35-20539517211025061","volume-title":"Audience Economics: Media Institutions and the Audience Marketplace","author":"Napoli PM","year":"2003"},{"key":"bibr36-20539517211025061","unstructured":"Perrin N (2020) US programmatic display spending will grow in spite of recession. Insider Intelligence, 24 August. Available at: www.emarketer.com\/content\/us-programmatic-display-spending-will-grow-spite-of-recession (accessed 3 June 2021)."},{"key":"bibr37-20539517211025061","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444816661553"},{"key":"bibr38-20539517211025061","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14763\/2019.4.1425"},{"key":"bibr39-20539517211025061","unstructured":"Sloane G (2020) Facebook blocks valuable ad data in privacy update to its marketing partner program.\n                      AdAge,\n                      21 February. 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Available at: www.wsj.com\/articles\/facebook-overestimated-key-video-metric-for-two-years-1474586951 (accessed 3 June 2021)."},{"key":"bibr49-20539517211025061","unstructured":"Whittaker Z (2020) Oracle\u2019s BlueKai tracks you across the web.\n                      TechCrunch\n                      , 19 June. Available at: https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2020\/06\/19\/oracle-bluekai-web-tracking\/  (accessed 3 June 2021)."},{"key":"bibr50-20539517211025061","unstructured":"Wodinsky S (2020) It doesn\u2019t matter who owns TikTok.\n                      Gizmodo\n                      , 8 June. Available at: https:\/\/gizmodo.com\/it-doesn-t-matter-who-owns-tiktok-1844595163 (accessed 3 June 2021)."}],"container-title":["Big Data &amp; Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/20539517211025061","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/20539517211025061","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/20539517211025061","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T12:58:14Z","timestamp":1777381094000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/20539517211025061"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,1]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/20539517211025061"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/20539517211025061","relation":{},"ISSN":["2053-9517","2053-9517"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2053-9517","type":"print"},{"value":"2053-9517","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,1]]},"article-number":"20539517211025061"}}