{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T09:43:38Z","timestamp":1777455818910,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,1]],"date-time":"2023-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1672531200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Big Data &amp; Society"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>On the face of it, contemporary \u201calt-tech\u201d platforms appear more moderate than legacy hate havens. Yet it's also clear that virulent hate in the form of misogyny, white supremacy, and xenophobia has not disappeared. Probing this tension, this article conceptualizes two forms of hate: Surface \u201cHate\u201d (moderate content that is highly visible and easily accessible) and Sublevel Hate (explicit content that is more marginal and less discernible). These terms are illustrated by examining several viral videos on Rumble. This twinned mechanism explains how alt-tech platforms can be both accessible and extreme at the same time. Stratified hate is strategic, heightening the appeal and durability of online communities. Recognizing this dangerous dynamic is key for interventions seeking to counter it.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/20539517221148136","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,20]],"date-time":"2023-01-20T00:46:25Z","timestamp":1674175585000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Surface and Sublevel Hate"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1018-7433","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luke","family":"Munn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Digital Cultures & Societies, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-20539517221148136","unstructured":"Abril D (2020) \u201cParler is a Haven for Extremists, Anti-Hate Group Says.\u201d\n                      Fortune\n                      , November 14, 2020. https:\/\/fortune.com\/2020\/11\/13\/parler-extremism-hate-conspiracy-theories-qanon-social-media-adl\/."},{"key":"bibr2-20539517221148136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14361\/9783839446706-010"},{"key":"bibr3-20539517221148136","unstructured":"Bomey N (2020) \u201cParler, MeWe, Gab Gain Momentum as Conservative Social Media Alternatives in Post-Trump Age.\u201d USA TODAY. November 11, 2020. https:\/\/www.usatoday.com\/story\/tech\/2020\/11\/11\/parler-mewe-gab-social-media-trump-election-facebook-twitter\/6232351002\/."},{"key":"bibr4-20539517221148136","first-page":"1","author":"Borelli M","year":"2021","journal-title":"New Media & Society August"},{"key":"bibr5-20539517221148136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3134666"},{"key":"bibr6-20539517221148136","unstructured":"Creps J (2021) \u201cOSINT for Gab and Dissenter Investigations.\u201d April 5, 2021. https:\/\/www.skopenow.com\/resource-center\/guide-to-gab-and-dissenter."},{"key":"bibr7-20539517221148136","volume-title":"Cyber Racism: White Supremacy Online and the New Attack on Civil Rights","author":"Daniels J","year":"2009"},{"key":"bibr8-20539517221148136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14361\/9783839446706-004"},{"key":"bibr9-20539517221148136","unstructured":"Ehrenkranz M (2017) \u201cGab, A Haven for White Nationalists, is Now Trying to Reach Young, Diverse Progressives.\u201d April 24, 2020. https:\/\/www.mic.com\/articles\/171268\/gab-a-haven-for-white-nationalists-is-nowtrying-to-reach-young-diverse-progressives (accessed 24 April 2020)."},{"key":"bibr10-20539517221148136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/poi3.236"},{"key":"bibr11-20539517221148136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2053951719897945"},{"key":"bibr12-20539517221148136","unstructured":"Heilweil R (2020) \u201cParler, the \u2018Free Speech\u2019 Social Network, explained.\u201d January 28, 2021. https:\/\/www.vox.com\/recode\/2020\/11\/24\/21579357\/parler-apptrump-twitter-facebook-censorship"},{"key":"bibr13-20539517221148136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203449363"},{"key":"bibr14-20539517221148136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s42979-021-00457-3"},{"key":"bibr15-20539517221148136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0221152"},{"key":"bibr16-20539517221148136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3292522.3326034"},{"issue":"6","key":"bibr17-20539517221148136","first-page":"1","volume":"24","author":"Munn L","year":"2019","journal-title":"First Monday"},{"key":"bibr18-20539517221148136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.22230\/cjc.2022v47n1a4037"},{"key":"bibr19-20539517221148136","unstructured":"Murphy D, Gershgorn M (2017) \u201cFacebook is Hiring more People to Moderate Content than Twitter has at its Entire Company.\u201d\n                      Quartz\n                      . October 13, 2017. https:\/\/qz.com\/1101455\/facebook-fb-is-hiring-more-people-to-moderate-content-than-twitter-twtr-has-at-its-entire-company\/."},{"key":"bibr20-20539517221148136","unstructured":"Occe\u00f1ola P (2019) \u201c8chan is \u2018a Cesspool,\u2019 \u2018worst Content on the Internet,\u2019 Says Site Founder.\u201d\n                      Rappler\n                      . August 19, 2019. http:\/\/www.rappler.com\/technology\/news\/238066-8chan-fredrick-brennan-shutdown-rappler-talk."},{"key":"bibr21-20539517221148136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1368430216634193"},{"key":"bibr22-20539517221148136","unstructured":"Peters JW (2022) \u201cRumble, the Right\u2019s Go-To Video Site, has Much Bigger Ambitions.\u201d\n                      The New York Times\n                      , March 28, 2022, sec. Business. https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2022\/03\/28\/business\/media\/rumble-social-media-conservatives-videos.html."},{"key":"bibr23-20539517221148136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0267323120922066"},{"key":"bibr24-20539517221148136","volume-title":"Beyond the \u2018Big Three\u2019: Alternative Platforms for Online Hate Speech","author":"sCAN","year":"2020"},{"key":"bibr25-20539517221148136","volume-title":"Less than Human: Why We Demean, Enslave, and Exterminate Others","author":"Smith DL","year":"2012"},{"key":"bibr26-20539517221148136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674269781"},{"key":"bibr27-20539517221148136","unstructured":"Stokel-Walker C (2018) \u201cThere\u2019s an Alt-Right Alt-Twitter and It\u2019s Filled with Hate.\u201d\n                      New Scientist\n                      , February 22, 2018. https:\/\/www.newscientistcom\/article\/2161933-theres-an-alt-right-alt-twitter-and-its-filled-with-hate\/."},{"key":"bibr28-20539517221148136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5840\/philtopics201745217"},{"key":"bibr29-20539517221148136","unstructured":"Torba A (2021) \u201cBuilding Technology to Power a Parallel Christian Society.\u201d\n                      Gab News.\n                      September 30, 2021. https:\/\/news.gab.com\/2021\/09\/27\/building-technology-to-power-a-parallel-christian-society\/"},{"key":"bibr30-20539517221148136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/19367244052200108"}],"container-title":["Big Data &amp; Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/20539517221148136","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/20539517221148136","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/20539517221148136","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T13:00:16Z","timestamp":1777381216000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/20539517221148136"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]},"references-count":30,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/20539517221148136"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/20539517221148136","relation":{},"ISSN":["2053-9517","2053-9517"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2053-9517","type":"print"},{"value":"2053-9517","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]},"article-number":"20539517221148136"}}