{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T04:06:38Z","timestamp":1772165198863,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,1]],"date-time":"2023-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1672531200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009633","name":"Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["T32HD007339"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32HD007339"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009633","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Big Data &amp; Society"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Research on scientific\/intellectual movements, and social movements generally, tends to focus on resources and conditions outside the substance of the movements, such as funding and publication opportunities or the prestige and networks of movement actors. Drawing on Pinch\u2019s theory of technologies as institutions, I argue that research methods can also serve as resources for scientific movements by institutionalizing their ideas in research practice. I demonstrate the argument with the case of neuroscience, where the adoption of machine learning changed how scientists think about measurement and modeling of group difference. This provided an opportunity for members of the sex difference movement by offering a \u2018truly categorical\u2019 quantitative methodology that aligned more closely with their understanding of male and female brains and bodies as categorically distinct. The result was a flurry of publications and symbiotic relationships with other researchers that rescued a scientific movement which had been growing increasingly untenable under the prior methodological regime of univariate, frequentist analyses. I call for increased sociological attention to the inner workings of technologies that we typically black box in light of their potential consequences for the social world. I also suggest that machine learning in particular might have wide-reaching implications for how we conceive of human groups beyond sex, including race, sexuality, criminality, and political position, where scientists are just beginning to adopt its methods.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/20539517231155060","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,21]],"date-time":"2023-02-21T00:08:06Z","timestamp":1676938086000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Because the machine can discriminate: How machine learning serves and transforms biological explanations of human difference"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1519-9588","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeffrey W.","family":"Lockhart","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/10111.001.0001"},{"key":"bibr2-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.24462"},{"key":"bibr3-20539517231155060","unstructured":"Arcas BA, Mitchell M, Totorov A (2017) Physiognomy\u2019s new clothes. In:\n                      Medium\n                      . Available at: https:\/\/medium.com\/@blaisea\/physiognomys-new-clothes-f2d4b59fdd6a (accessed 28 September 2020)."},{"key":"bibr4-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0306312710363511"},{"key":"bibr5-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhz170"},{"key":"bibr6-20539517231155060","volume-title":"Race After Technology: Abolitionist Tools for the New Jim Code","author":"Benjamin R","year":"2019","edition":"1"},{"key":"bibr7-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhab037"},{"key":"bibr8-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-40700-5_5"},{"key":"bibr9-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2017.00543"},{"key":"bibr10-20539517231155060","volume":"2014","author":"Cahill L","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cerebrum: The Dana Forum on Brain Science"},{"key":"bibr11-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.17351\/ests2020.277"},{"key":"bibr12-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2017.08.019"},{"key":"bibr13-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1523888113"},{"key":"bibr14-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/14050.001.0001"},{"key":"bibr15-20539517231155060","volume-title":"Method and Measurement in Sociology","author":"Cicourel AV","year":"1964"},{"key":"bibr16-20539517231155060","unstructured":"Clayton A (2020) How eugenics shaped statistics.\n                      Nautilus\n                      , 28 October. Available at: http:\/\/nautil.us\/issue\/92\/frontiers\/how-eugenics-shaped-statistics (accessed 29 October 2020)."},{"key":"bibr17-20539517231155060","volume-title":"Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice","author":"Collins H","year":"1992"},{"key":"bibr18-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-23976-1"},{"key":"bibr19-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Del Giudice M, Lippa R, Puts D, et al. (2015) Mosaic brains? A methodological critique of Joel et al. Behavioral and Psychological Sex Differences. doi: 10.13140\/RG.2.1.1038.8566.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3075450"},{"key":"bibr20-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.25030"},{"key":"bibr21-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13280-016-0820-7"},{"key":"bibr22-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2016.3990"},{"key":"bibr23-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2021.02.026"},{"key":"bibr24-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226206868.001.0001"},{"key":"bibr25-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226213118.001.0001"},{"key":"bibr26-20539517231155060","volume-title":"Automating Inequality: How High-Tech Tools Profile, Police, and Punish the Poor","author":"Eubanks V","year":"2017"},{"key":"bibr27-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/424932"},{"key":"bibr28-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2012.12.068"},{"key":"bibr29-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-1809.1936.tb02137.x"},{"key":"bibr30-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fsoc.2021.705106"},{"issue":"1","key":"bibr31-20539517231155060","first-page":"9","volume":"15","author":"Fourcade M","year":"2016","journal-title":"Socio-Economic Review"},{"issue":"1","key":"bibr32-20539517231155060","first-page":"286","volume":"42","author":"Fourcade M","year":"2017","journal-title":"Historical Social Research"},{"key":"bibr33-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/000312240507000202"},{"key":"bibr34-20539517231155060","unstructured":"Glocker B, Robinson R, Castro DC, et al. (2019) Machine learning with multi-site imaging data: An empirical study on the impact of scanner effects.\n                      arXiv:\n                      1910\n                      .\n                      04597\n                      [cs, eess, q-bio]\n                      . Available at: http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1910.04597 (accessed 17 April 2021)."},{"key":"bibr35-20539517231155060","volume-title":"The Mismeasure of Man. Rev. and Expanded","author":"Gould SJ","year":"1996"},{"key":"bibr36-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2012.03.016"},{"key":"bibr37-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00502"},{"key":"bibr38-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674038943"},{"key":"bibr39-20539517231155060","volume-title":"\u2018Raw Data\u2019 Is an Oxymoron (ed. L Gitelman)","author":"Jackson V","year":"2013"},{"key":"bibr40-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1509654112"},{"key":"bibr41-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2018.00399"},{"key":"bibr42-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3274357"},{"key":"bibr43-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/03080188.2020.1840224"},{"key":"bibr44-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.25888"},{"key":"bibr45-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11186-022-09500-5"},{"key":"bibr46-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2003.09.027"},{"key":"bibr47-20539517231155060","volume-title":"Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud","author":"Laqueur TW","year":"1990"},{"key":"bibr48-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780199256044.001.0001"},{"key":"bibr49-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/ijb-2015-0030"},{"key":"bibr50-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003026433-21"},{"key":"bibr51-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/08912432211001384"},{"key":"bibr52-20539517231155060","first-page":"1","volume-title":"NeurIPS 2021 AI for Science Workshop","author":"Lockhart JW","year":"2021"},{"key":"bibr53-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-017-0273-3"},{"key":"bibr54-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01419870.2014.931992"},{"key":"bibr55-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2016.07.027"},{"key":"bibr56-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18574\/nyu\/9781479833641.001.0001"},{"key":"bibr57-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11186-008-9069-x"},{"key":"bibr58-20539517231155060","volume-title":"The Gendered Brain: The New Neuroscience That Shatters the Myth of the Female Brain","author":"Rippon G","year":"2019"},{"key":"bibr59-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/9781503627901"},{"key":"bibr60-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1523961113"},{"key":"bibr61-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12152-007-9003-3"},{"key":"bibr62-20539517231155060","volume-title":"Bit by Bit: Social Research in the Digital Age","author":"Salganik M","year":"2017"},{"key":"bibr63-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2022.119343"},{"issue":"1","key":"bibr64-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-56847-4","volume":"10","author":"Sanchis-Segura C","year":"2020","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"bibr65-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/692517"},{"key":"bibr66-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/20539517211053712"},{"key":"bibr67-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0891243209340034"},{"key":"bibr68-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-18037-z"},{"key":"bibr69-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14506\/ca33.3.04"},{"key":"bibr70-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2018.01.065"},{"key":"bibr71-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abo1102"},{"key":"bibr72-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-21495-7"},{"key":"bibr73-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2017.06.061"},{"key":"bibr74-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2015.01.032"},{"key":"bibr75-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/soc4.12028"},{"key":"bibr76-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2012.03.080"},{"key":"bibr77-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0891243215584758"},{"key":"bibr78-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2868813"},{"key":"bibr79-20539517231155060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhaa408"},{"key":"bibr80-20539517231155060","author":"Zoubi OA","year":"2020","journal-title":"BioRxiv"}],"container-title":["Big Data &amp; Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/20539517231155060","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/20539517231155060","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/20539517231155060","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]],"date-time":"2025-03-03T07:39:52Z","timestamp":1740987592000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/20539517231155060"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]},"references-count":80,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/20539517231155060"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/20539517231155060","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.31235\/osf.io\/kta6j","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2053-9517","2053-9517"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2053-9517","type":"print"},{"value":"2053-9517","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]},"article-number":"20539517231155060"}}