{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T09:45:19Z","timestamp":1777455919268,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,1]],"date-time":"2023-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1688169600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100020895","name":"MIT-IBM Watson AI Lab","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["N\/A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N\/A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100020895","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Big Data &amp; Society"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The racial wealth gap in the United States remains a persistent issue; white individuals possess six times more wealth than Black individuals. Leading scholars and public figures have pointed to slavery and post-slavery discrimination as root cause factors and called for reparations. Yet the institutionalization of race-neutral ideologies in policies and practices hinders a reparative approach to closing the racial wealth gap. This study models the use of algorithmic methods in the service of reparations to Black Americans in the domain of housing, where most American wealth is built. We examine a hypothetical scenario for measuring the effectiveness of race-conscious Special Purpose Credit Programs (SPCPs) in reducing the housing racial wealth gap compared to race-neutral SPCPs. We use a predictive model to show that race-conscious, people-based lending programs, if they were nationally available, would be two to three times more effective in closing the racial housing wealth gap than other, existing forms of SPCPs. In doing so, we also demonstrate the potential for using algorithms and computational methods to support outcomes aligned with movements for reparations, another possible meaning for the emerging discourse on \u201calgorithmic reparations.\u201d<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/20539517231210272","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,15]],"date-time":"2023-11-15T03:10:42Z","timestamp":1700017842000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Race-neutral vs race-conscious: Using algorithmic methods to evaluate the reparative potential of housing programs"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4867-3429","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wonyoung","family":"So","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urban Studies and Planning, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8673-1941","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Catherine","family":"D\u2019Ignazio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urban Studies and Planning, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.37419\/TWLR.V16.I4.8"},{"key":"bibr2-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-6803.2004.00093.x"},{"key":"bibr3-20539517231210272","unstructured":"Barabas C, Virza M, Dinakar K, et al. (2018) Interventions over Predictions: Reframing the Ethical Debate for Actuarial Risk Assessment. In:\n                      Proceedings of the 1st Conference on Fairness, Accountability and Transparency\n                      , 21 January 2018, pp. 62\u201376."},{"key":"bibr4-20539517231210272","volume-title":"Race After Technology: Abolitionist Tools for the New Jim Code","author":"Benjamin R","year":"2019","edition":"1"},{"key":"bibr5-20539517231210272","unstructured":"Blower B, Silver J, Richardson J, et al. (2021) Adding Robust Consideration of Race to Community Reinvestment Act Regulations: An Essential and Constitutional Proposal. Available at: https:\/\/www.ncrc.org\/adding-robust-consideration-of-race-to-community-reinvestment-act-regulations-an-essential-and-constitutional-proposal\/."},{"key":"bibr6-20539517231210272","volume-title":"Living for Change: An Autobiography","author":"Boggs GL","year":"2016"},{"key":"bibr7-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0309132515613166"},{"key":"bibr8-20539517231210272","volume-title":"Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America","author":"Bonilla-Silva E","year":"2018","edition":"5"},{"key":"bibr9-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1080-8620.2003.00056.x"},{"key":"bibr10-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0896920509347144"},{"key":"bibr11-20539517231210272","unstructured":"CFR Part 1002 (2023) Equal Credit Opportunity Act. Available at: https:\/\/www.consumerfinance.gov\/rules-policy\/regulations\/1002\/."},{"key":"bibr12-20539517231210272","unstructured":"Choi JH, Reynolds L, Perry VG (2022) How Place-Based Special Purpose Credit Programs Can Reduce the Racial Homeownership Gap. Available at: https:\/\/www.urban.org\/urban-wire\/how-place-based-special-purpose-credit-programs-can-reduce-racial-homeownership-gap."},{"key":"bibr13-20539517231210272","unstructured":"Coates T-N (2014) The Case for Reparations. Available at: https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/magazine\/archive\/2014\/06\/the-case-for-reparations\/361631\/."},{"key":"bibr14-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203900055"},{"key":"bibr15-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5149\/northcarolina\/9781469654973.001.0001"},{"key":"bibr16-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/20539517211044808"},{"key":"bibr17-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/mcb.2006.0079"},{"key":"bibr18-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Derenoncourt E, Kim CH, Kuhn M, et al. (2022) Wealth of Two Nations: The U.S. Racial Wealth Gap, 1860\u20132020. Working Paper Series 30101, Working Paper. National Bureau of Economic Research. Available at: https:\/\/www.nber.org\/papers\/w30101.","DOI":"10.21034\/iwp.59"},{"key":"bibr19-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/666082"},{"key":"bibr20-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/11805.001.0001"},{"key":"bibr21-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10835547.2011.12091305"},{"key":"bibr22-20539517231210272","volume-title":"Black Reconstruction in America: An Essay toward a History of the Part Which Black Folk Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860\u20131880","author":"Du Bois WEB","year":"1935"},{"key":"bibr23-20539517231210272","volume-title":"Automating Inequality: How High-Tech Tools Profile, Police, and Punish the Poor","author":"Eubanks V","year":"2018"},{"key":"bibr24-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10511482.2017.1341944"},{"key":"bibr25-20539517231210272","volume-title":"The Constitutional Logic of Affirmative Action (ed. 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Available at: https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2020\/06\/24\/magazine\/reparations-slavery.html."},{"key":"bibr32-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1341787"},{"key":"bibr33-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10511482.2016.1155073"},{"key":"bibr34-20539517231210272","first-page":"233","volume":"56","author":"Havard CJ","year":"2005","journal-title":"Syracuse Law Review"},{"key":"bibr35-20539517231210272","unstructured":"HUD (2021) Office of General Counsel Guidance on the Fair Housing Act\u2019s Treatment of Certain Special Purpose Credit Programs That Are Designed and Implemented in Compliance with the Equal Credit Opportunity Act and Regulation B. Available at: https:\/\/www.hud.gov\/sites\/dfiles\/GC\/documents\/Special_Purpose_Credit_Program_OGC_guidance_12-6-2021.pdf."},{"key":"bibr36-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/sf\/sou099"},{"key":"bibr37-20539517231210272","volume-title":"Credit to the Community: Community Reinvestment and Fair Lending Policy in the United States","author":"Immergluck D","year":"2004"},{"key":"bibr38-20539517231210272","unstructured":"Joint Center for Housing Studies (2002)\n                      The 25th Anniversary of the Community Reinvestment Act: Access to Capital in an Evolving Financial Services System\n                      . February. Cambridge: Harvard University Joint Center for Housing Studies. Available at: https:\/\/www.jchs.harvard.edu\/research-areas\/working-papers\/25th-anniversary-community-reinvestment-act-access-capital-evolving."},{"key":"bibr39-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3442188.3445899"},{"key":"bibr40-20539517231210272","volume-title":"Freedom Dreams: The Black Radical Imagination","author":"Kelley RDG","year":"2003"},{"key":"bibr41-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3386\/w29306"},{"key":"bibr42-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4116835"},{"key":"bibr43-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-71867-1"},{"key":"bibr44-20539517231210272","unstructured":"Liptak A (2022) Supreme Court Seems Ready to Throw Out Race-Based College Admissions.\n                      The New York Times\n                      , 31 October. Available at: https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2022\/10\/31\/us\/supreme-court-harvard-unc-affirmative-action.html."},{"key":"bibr45-20539517231210272","unstructured":"Mac F (2022) Equitable Housing Finance Plan: Our Commitment to Making Home Possible Equitably. Freddie Mac. Available at: https:\/\/www.freddiemac.com\/about\/pdf\/Freddie-Mac-Equitable-Housing-Finance-Plan.pdf."},{"key":"bibr46-20539517231210272","unstructured":"Mae F (2022) Equitable Housing Finance Plan. 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In:\n                      Conference of Consumer Finance Law, Quarterly Report\n                      , 14 June 2019. 4. Available at: https:\/\/ncrc.org\/the-purpose-and-design-of-the-community-reinvestment-act-cra-an-examination-of-the-1977-hearings-and-passage-of-the-cra\/."},{"key":"bibr64-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3531146.3533160"},{"key":"bibr65-20539517231210272","volume-title":"Capital and Communities in Black and White: The Intersections of Race, Class, and Uneven Development. SUNY series, the new inequalities","author":"Squires GD","year":"1994"},{"key":"bibr66-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511583629"},{"key":"bibr67-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/20539517221115189"},{"key":"bibr68-20539517231210272","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02673037.2017.1390076"},{"key":"bibr69-20539517231210272","unstructured":"Students of Fair Admissions v. 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