{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T00:06:08Z","timestamp":1782518768086,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]],"date-time":"2024-01-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704672000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100021638","name":"Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["767-2023-2658"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["767-2023-2658"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100021638","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Big Data &amp; Society"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Diversity is often announced as a solution to ethical problems in artificial intelligence (AI), but what exactly is meant by diversity and how it can solve those problems is seldom spelled out. This lack of clarity is one hurdle to motivating diversity in AI. Another hurdle is that while the most common perceptions about what diversity is are too weak to do the work set out for them, stronger notions of diversity are often defended on normative grounds that fail to connect to the values that are important to decision-makers in AI. However, there is a long history of research in feminist philosophy of science and a recent body of work in social epistemology that taken together provide the foundation for a notion of diversity that is both strong enough to do the work demanded of it, and can be defended on epistemic grounds that connect with the values that are important to decision-makers in AI. We clarify and defend that notion here by introducing emergent expertise as a network phenomenon wherein groups of workers with expertise of different types can gain knowledge not available to any individual alone, as long as they have ways of communicating across types of expertise. We illustrate the connected epistemic and ethical benefits of designing technology with diverse groups of workers using the examples of an infamous racist soap dispenser, and the millimeter wave scanners used in US airport security.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/20539517231224247","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,9]],"date-time":"2024-01-09T02:52:33Z","timestamp":1704768753000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["A feeling for the algorithm: Diversity, expertise, and artificial intelligence"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2770-7922","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Catherine","family":"Stinson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Philosophy, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6561-8301","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sofie","family":"Vlaad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Philosophy, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-20539517231224247","unstructured":"Afigbo C (2017) [Twitter]. 22 August. 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Available at: https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2021\/01\/31\/business\/google-hbcus\/index.html (accessed 3 June 2023)."},{"key":"bibr6-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1527-2001.1995.tb00737.x"},{"key":"bibr7-20539517231224247","volume-title":"From Betty Crocker to feminist food studies: Critical perspectives on women and food","author":"Avakian AV","year":"2005"},{"key":"bibr8-20539517231224247","unstructured":"Beard C (2018)  Diversity and Inclusion at Mozilla. In\n                      Life@Mozilla\n                      . Available at: https:\/\/blog.mozilla.org\/careers\/diversity-and-inclusion-at-mozilla (accessed 3 June 2023)."},{"key":"bibr9-20539517231224247","volume-title":"Race after Technology: Abolitionist Tools for the New Jim Code","author":"Benjamin R","year":"2018"},{"key":"bibr10-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Birhane A, Guest O (2020) Towards decolonising computational sciences.\n                      arXiv preprint arXiv:2009.14258\n                      .","DOI":"10.7146\/kkf.v29i2.124899"},{"key":"bibr11-20539517231224247","unstructured":"Blodgett SL, O'Connor B (2017) Racial disparity in natural language processing: A case study of social media African-American English.\n                      arXiv preprint arXiv:1707.00061\n                      ."},{"key":"bibr12-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1215\/9780822375302"},{"key":"bibr13-20539517231224247","volume-title":"Gender Shades: Intersectional accuracy disparities in commercial gender classification","author":"Buolamwini J","year":"2018"},{"key":"bibr14-20539517231224247","unstructured":"Cai F (2020) Yann LeCun Quits twitter amid acrimonious exchanges on AI bias.\n                      Synced\n                      .\n                      https:\/\/syncedreview.com\/2020\/06\/30\/yann-lecun-quits-twitter-amid-acrimonious-exchanges-on-ai-bias\/ (accessed 23 October 2023)."},{"key":"bibr15-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-020-09534-2"},{"key":"bibr16-20539517231224247","unstructured":"CBC News (2000) Professor criticizes Montreal massacre memorials. Available at: https:\/\/www.cbc.ca\/news\/canada\/professor-criticizes-montreal-massacre-memorials-1.235652 (accessed 3 June 2023)."},{"key":"bibr17-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000052"},{"key":"bibr18-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/14050.001.0001"},{"key":"bibr19-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226113623.001.0001"},{"key":"bibr20-20539517231224247","unstructured":"ComputerScience.org Staff. (2022) Women in Computer Science: Getting Involved in STEM. Available at: https:\/\/www.computerscience.org\/resources\/women-in-computer-science\/ (accessed 3 June 2023)."},{"key":"bibr21-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/12255.001.0001"},{"key":"bibr22-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3391403.3399545"},{"key":"bibr23-20539517231224247","unstructured":"Crawford K (2016) Artificial Intelligence's White Guy Problem.\n                      The New York Times.\n                      25 June. Available at: https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/06\/26\/opinion\/sunday\/artificial-intelligences-white-guy-problem.html (accessed 3 June 2023)."},{"key":"bibr24-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/538311a"},{"key":"bibr25-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1229039"},{"key":"bibr26-20539517231224247","unstructured":"Curley A (2020) [Twitter]. 21 December. Available at: https:\/\/twitter.com\/RealAbril\/status\/1341135819487100928 (accessed 3 June 2023)."},{"key":"bibr27-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/016224399502000402"},{"key":"bibr28-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/20539517221082027"},{"key":"bibr29-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4020-6835-5_7"},{"key":"bibr30-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0306312793023003002"},{"key":"bibr31-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/hex.12988"},{"key":"bibr32-20539517231224247","unstructured":"Fussell S (2021) Black tech employees rebel against \u2018diversity theater\u2019.\n                      Wired\n                      , 8 March. Available at: https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/black-tech-employees-rebel-against-diversity-theater\/ (accessed 3 June 2023)."},{"key":"bibr33-20539517231224247","unstructured":"Gershgorn D (2019) Microsoft staff are openly questioning the value of diversity.\n                      Quartz\n                      , 19 April. Available at: https:\/\/qz.com\/1598345\/microsoft-staff-are-openly-questioning-the-value-of-diversity\/ (accessed 3 June 2023)."},{"key":"bibr34-20539517231224247","volume-title":"\u2018Good\u2019 isn\u2019t good enough","author":"Green B","year":"2019"},{"key":"bibr35-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/701070"},{"key":"bibr36-20539517231224247","unstructured":"Hale J (2017). This viral video of a racist soap dispenser reveals a much bigger problem in tech.\n                      IFL Science\n                      , 18 August. Available at: https:\/\/www.iflscience.com\/technology\/this-racist-soap-dispenser-reveals-why-diversity-in-tech-is-muchneeded\/ (accessed 3 June 2023)."},{"key":"bibr37-20539517231224247","volume-title":"Simians, Cyborgs, and Women","author":"Haraway D","year":"1991"},{"key":"bibr38-20539517231224247","volume-title":"The Science Question in Feminism","author":"Harding S","year":"1986"},{"key":"bibr39-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01064504"},{"key":"bibr40-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MAHC.2013.3"},{"key":"bibr41-20539517231224247","volume-title":"Programmed Inequality: How Britain Discarded Women Technologists and Lost Its Edge in Computing","author":"Hicks M","year":"2017"},{"key":"bibr42-20539517231224247","first-page":"35","volume-title":"Beyond Methodology: Feminist Scholarship as Lived Research","author":"Hill Collins P","year":"1991"},{"key":"bibr43-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0403723101"},{"key":"bibr44-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1527-2001.2010.01138.x"},{"key":"bibr45-20539517231224247","volume-title":"A Feeling for the Organism: The Life and Work of Barbara McClintock","author":"Keller EF","year":"1983"},{"key":"bibr46-20539517231224247","unstructured":"Lam MB (2018) Diversity fatigue is real.\n                      The Chronicle of Higher Education\n                      , 23 September. Available at: https:\/\/www.chronicle.com\/article\/diversity-fatigue-is-real\/ (accessed 3 June 2023)."},{"key":"bibr47-20539517231224247","volume-title":"Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society","author":"Latour B","year":"1987"},{"key":"bibr48-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/phpr.12701"},{"key":"bibr49-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1527-2001.1987.tb01341.x"},{"key":"bibr50-20539517231224247","unstructured":"McKinsey and Co (2020) Diversity Wins: How Inclusion Matters. Online report. 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Game-Changing Diversity Lessons from Women in Tech.\n                      Inc.\n                      Available at: https:\/\/www.inc.com\/molly-reynolds\/game-changing-diversity-lessons-from-women-in-tech.html (accessed 3 June 2023)."},{"key":"bibr65-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.1991.139758"},{"key":"bibr66-20539517231224247","volume-title":"Discriminating Systems: Gender, Race and Power in AI","author":"West SM","year":"2019"},{"key":"bibr67-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/1051-2004(91)90095-3"},{"key":"bibr68-20539517231224247","volume-title":"AI Now Report 2018","author":"Whittaker M","year":"2018"},{"issue":"1","key":"bibr69-20539517231224247","first-page":"121","volume":"109","author":"Winner L","year":"1980","journal-title":"Daedalus"},{"key":"bibr70-20539517231224247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2008.79"},{"key":"bibr71-20539517231224247","first-page":"26","volume-title":"Science and Other Cultures: Issues in Philosophies of Science and Technology","author":"Wylie A","year":"2003"}],"container-title":["Big Data &amp; Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/20539517231224247","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/20539517231224247","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/20539517231224247","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T13:00:41Z","timestamp":1777381241000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/20539517231224247"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]]},"references-count":71,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,3]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/20539517231224247"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/20539517231224247","relation":{},"ISSN":["2053-9517","2053-9517"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2053-9517","type":"print"},{"value":"2053-9517","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,8]]},"article-number":"20539517231224247"}}