{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T09:50:32Z","timestamp":1777456232339,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]],"date-time":"2025-08-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754438400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]],"date-time":"2025-08-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754438400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Big Data &amp; Society"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    In 2022, immigration advocates filed a lawsuit against commercial data broker LexisNexis (\u201cLexis\u201d) for its role in facilitating unwarranted surveillance of immigrants and political activists critical of U.S. immigration policy (\n                    <jats:italic>Castellanos et al. v. LexisNexis Risk Solutions,<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:xref ref-type=\"bibr\">Complaint, 2022<\/jats:xref>\n                    ). The plaintiffs allege that use of Accurint (the product Lexis sells to U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement) violates consent, compensation, and privacy laws, further subjecting noncitizens to monitoring that can result in severe enforcement action\u2014including detainment, deportation, and arrest. This lawsuit reflects a broader phenomenon in which brokers partner with law enforcement and intelligence agencies to collect, aggregate, and analyze personal data, build information systems to make inferences about individuals, and sell their services to aid policing activities. In this article, we argue that U.S. government use of Accurint is morally objectionable. The\n                    <jats:italic>Castellanos<\/jats:italic>\n                    complaint outlines harms connected to freedoms of speech, association, equal rights, and consumer protection. Lexis\u2019 response points to government interests in enforcing immigration laws, public safety, and conducting criminal investigations. We argue that government use of sociotechnical decision systems such as Accurint are justifiable only to the extent that such use adequately respects the autonomy and agency of persons subject to those systems, which turns on reliability, purported responsibility, stakes, and relative burdens. Finally, because federal use of Accurint conflicts with the legitimate policy goals of substate actors, its use for enforcement of noncriminal immigration violations is unjustifiable.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/20539517251351323","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,7]],"date-time":"2025-08-07T06:15:48Z","timestamp":1754547348000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The ICE\u2013Lexis nexus: An argument against use of commercial databases in immigration enforcement"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-0531-8482","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jessica P.","family":"Needle","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7028-7305","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alan","family":"Rubel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Information School and Center for Law, Society and Justice, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_1","unstructured":"Accurint\u00ae for Banking (n.d.) Available at: https:\/\/www.accurint.com\/banking.html (accessed 22 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_1","unstructured":"Accurint\u00ae for Legal Professionals (n.d.) Available at: https:\/\/www.lexisnexis.com\/en-us\/products\/accurint-for-legal-professionals.page (accessed 22 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203094426-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_1","volume-title":"Panopticon or the Inspection House","author":"Bentham J","year":"1791","unstructured":"Bentham J (1791) Panopticon or the Inspection House, Vol. 2. Dublin, Ireland: T. Payne."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_1","unstructured":"Biddle S (2022) ICE searched LexisNexis Database over 1 million times in just seven months. Available at: https:\/\/theintercept.com\/2022\/06\/09\/ice-lexisnexis-mass-surveillances\/ (accessed 22 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.24908\/ss.v20i4.15946"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108774581.006"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/20539517211065368"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0034670500033817"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_1","unstructured":"Castellanos MF Carrasco R Torres CM Mijente Support Committee Organized Communities Against Deportations v. LexisNexis Risk Solutions Complaint (2022) Case No. 22CV05384."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_1","unstructured":"Castellanos MF Carrasco R Torres CM Mijente Support Committee Organized Communities Against Deportations v. LexisNexis Risk Solutions Defendant Memorandum in Support of Motion to Dismiss (2022) Case No. 22CV05384."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_1","unstructured":"Castellanos MF Carrasco R Torres CM Mijente Support Committee Organized Communities Against Deportations v. LexisNexis Risk Solutions Memorandum Opinion and Order (2024) Case No. 22CV05384."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_14_1","unstructured":"Catalan-Ramirez v. Wong Complaint (2017) Case No. 17-cv-3258. Available at: https:\/\/www.macarthurjustice.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/07\/Catalan-Ramirez-v-Wong.pdf (accessed 14 January 2024)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_15_1","unstructured":"Code of Ordinances of Cook County IL (2011) Cook County Detainer Ordinance. Available at: https:\/\/library.municode.com\/il\/cook_county\/codes\/code_of_ordinances?nodeId=PTIGEOR_CH46LAEN_ARTIISH_DIV1GE_SDIINGE_S46-37POREICDE (accessed 25 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11158-020-09489-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_17_1","unstructured":"Data Analytics for Intelligence-Led and Evidence-Based Policing | LexisNexis Risk Solutions (n.d.) LexisNexis\u00ae Accurint\u00ae Virtual Crime Center. Available at: https:\/\/risk.lexisnexis.com\/products\/accurint-virtual-crime-center (accessed 22 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ajj\/auw006"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_19_1","unstructured":"Floyd v. City of N.Y. 959 F. Supp. 2d 540 (SDNY 2013) (n.d.) Available at: https:\/\/casetext.com\/case\/floyd-v-city-of-ny-2 (accessed 24 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_20_1","unstructured":"Funk M (2019) How ICE picks its targets in the surveillance age. The New York Times 2 October. Available at: https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2019\/10\/02\/magazine\/ice-surveillance-deportation.html (accessed 21 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-016-0219-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15295039309366849"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780197579411.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00071310020015280"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203814949.ch2_2_c"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_26_1","unstructured":"ILCS (2017) Illinois TRUST Act. Available at: https:\/\/www.ilga.gov\/legislation\/ilcs\/ilcs3.asp?ActID=3818&ChapterID=2 (accessed 25 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_27_1","unstructured":"Jones T Payton M Feather B (2019) Source: Leaked documents show the U.S. Government tracking journalists and immigration advocates through a secret database. NBC 7 San Diego 6 March. Available at: https:\/\/www.nbcsandiego.com\/news\/local\/source-leaked-documents-show-the-us-government-tracking-journalists-and-advocates-through-a-secret-database\/3438\/ (accessed 21 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/9781503633728"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_29_1","unstructured":"LexisNexis Risk Solutions (n.d.a) About LexisNexis risk solutions and the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Available at: https:\/\/risk.lexisnexis.com\/government\/our-services-for-homeland-security (accessed 13 June 2025)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_30_1","unstructured":"LexisNexis Risk Solutions (n.d.b) Accurint\u00ae crime analysis. Available at: https:\/\/risk.lexisnexis.com\/products\/accurint-crime-analysis (accessed 22 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_31_1","unstructured":"LexisNexis Risk Solutions (n.d.c) Accurint\u00ae for government. Available at: https:\/\/risk.lexisnexis.com\/products\/accurint-for-government (accessed 22 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_32_1","unstructured":"LexisNexis Risk Solutions (n.d.d) Accurint\u00ae for healthcare. Available at: https:\/\/risk.lexisnexis.com\/products\/accurint-for-healthcare (accessed 22 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_33_1","unstructured":"LexisNexis Risk Solutions (n.d.e) Accurint\u00ae for insurance. Available at: https:\/\/risk.lexisnexis.com\/products\/accurint-for-insurance (accessed 22 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/phc3.12653"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199579419.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_36_1","volume-title":"Surveillance as Social Sorting: Privacy, Risk and Automated Discrimination","author":"Lyon D","year":"2002","unstructured":"Lyon D (2002) Surveillance as Social Sorting: Privacy, Risk and Automated Discrimination. Oxford, UK: Taylor & Francis Group. Available at: http:\/\/ebookcentral.proquest.com\/lib\/utxa\/detail.action?docID=240591."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315162867"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-08-097086-8.64025-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_39_1","unstructured":"Mijente Colorado Immigrant Rights Coalition Just Futures Law et al. (n.d.) Sabotaging sanctuary: How data brokers give ICE backdoor access to Colorado\u2019s data and jails. No tech for ICE. Mijente. Available at: https:\/\/notechforice.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/Sabotaging-Sanctuary_Final-Report_Design-4-1.pdf (accessed 22 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003058526-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_41_1","unstructured":"Moreno N (2017) Immigrant sues Chicago police for placing his name in gang database. Chicago Tribune 11 July. Available at: https:\/\/www.chicagotribune.com\/news\/breaking\/ct-chicago-gang-database-immigrant-met-20170711-story.html (accessed 22 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_42_1","unstructured":"Municipal Code of Chicago (2012) Welcoming City Ordinance. Available at: https:\/\/codelibrary.amlegal.com\/codes\/chicago\/latest\/chicago_il\/0-0-0-2605237 (accessed 25 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_43_1","unstructured":"NYC Bar Association (2025) Report on the Trump administration\u2019s early 2025 changes to immigration law (pp. 1\u201361). The Association of the Bar of the City of New York. https:\/\/www.nycbar.org\/reports\/the-trump-administrations-early-2025-changes-to-immigration-law\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_44_1","volume-title":"On What Matters \/ Derek Parfit; Edited and Introduced by Samuel Scheffler. The Berkeley Tanner Lectures","author":"Parfit D","year":"2011","unstructured":"Parfit D, Scheffler S (2011) On What Matters \/ Derek Parfit; Edited and Introduced by Samuel Scheffler. The Berkeley Tanner Lectures. Oxford: Oxford University Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139017428"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674042582"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0896920513501350"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5840\/soctheorpract202062497"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108895057"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1065912916680036"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_51_1","volume-title":"What We Owe to Each Other \/ T.M. Scanlon","author":"Scanlon T","year":"1998","unstructured":"Scanlon T (1998) What We Owe to Each Other \/ T.M. Scanlon. Cambridge: Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_52_1","unstructured":"Terry v. Ohio 392 U.S. 1 (1968) (n.d.). Available at: https:\/\/supreme.justia.com\/cases\/federal\/us\/392\/1\/ (accessed 22 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_53_1","unstructured":"TRAC (2019) ICE Detains Fewer Immigrants with Serious Criminal Convictions Under Trump Administration. 6 December. Syracuse University. Available at: https:\/\/trac.syr.edu\/immigration\/reports\/585\/ (accessed 22 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_54_1","volume-title":"Data Borders: How Silicon Valley Is Building an Industry around Immigrants","author":"Villa-Nicholas M","year":"2023","unstructured":"Villa-Nicholas M (2023) Data Borders: How Silicon Valley Is Building an Industry around Immigrants, 1st ed. University of California Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_55_1","volume-title":"The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy","author":"Walen A","year":"2023","unstructured":"Walen A (2023) Retributive Justice. In: Zalta EN, Nodelman U (eds) The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Fall 2023. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, Section 4.4. Available at: https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/fall2023\/entries\/justice-retributive\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_56_1","unstructured":"Wang N Mcdonald A Bateyko D et al. (2022) American Dragnet: Data-driven deportation in the 21st century. Center on Privacy & Technology at Georgetown Law. Available at: https:\/\/americandragnet.org\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_57_1","unstructured":"Welcome to Accurint (n.d.) Available at: https:\/\/www.accurint.com\/hr.html (accessed 22 October 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_58_1","volume-title":"The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power","author":"Zuboff S","year":"2019","unstructured":"Zuboff S (2019) The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power. New York, NY: PublicAffairs."}],"container-title":["Big Data &amp; Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/20539517251351323","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/20539517251351323","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/20539517251351323","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T13:01:18Z","timestamp":1777381278000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/20539517251351323"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/20539517251351323"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/20539517251351323","relation":{},"ISSN":["2053-9517","2053-9517"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2053-9517","type":"print"},{"value":"2053-9517","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]]},"article-number":"20539517251351323"}}