{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T09:51:37Z","timestamp":1777456297389,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]],"date-time":"2025-10-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761609600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]],"date-time":"2025-10-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761609600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"funder":[{"name":"Tsinghua University Independent Research Program","award":["20223080026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20223080026"]}]},{"name":"the 2024 Philosophy and Social Science Planning Project of Guangdong Province","award":["GD24YGL20"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GD24YGL20"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100018537","name":"National Science and Technology Major Project","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2023ZD0121700"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023ZD0121700"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100018537","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Beijing Innovation Center of Humanities and Social Sciences"},{"name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation funded project","award":["2023M743362"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023M743362"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Big Data &amp; Society"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly employed to support decision-making in the public sector, yet it exacerbates the \u201cproblem of many hands and eyes\u201d in public accountability. Using a vignette experiment with a 3\u2009\u00d7\u20093 factorial design, we investigated how the configuration of account givers and holders in AI accountability affects perceived legitimacy among citizens. Our findings indicate that human agents are perceived as more legitimate account holders than AI systems, where bureaucratic operators outperform technological developers. Additionally, citizens are perceived as more legitimate account holders than political leaders and experts. We also explored the interactive effects between account givers and holders. This study responds to calls for empirical evidence on AI accountability, expands the conceptual framework of accountability in the AI era, and highlights the crucial roles of bureaucrats and citizens.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/20539517251392100","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]],"date-time":"2025-10-28T15:27:59Z","timestamp":1761665279000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["When artificial intelligence meets accountability: Who holds legitimacy as account givers and holders?"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9955-7906","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shangrui","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Tsinghua University"},{"name":"Tsinghua University"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1476-1401","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuanmeng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tsinghua University"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8483-1503","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yiming","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"South China Agricultural University"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-8589-2002","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zheng","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tsinghua University"},{"name":"Tsinghua University"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/faam.12301"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.30636\/jbpa.22.66"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jopart\/muac007"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_3_5_1","first-page":"128","article-title":"Experimental vignette studies in survey research","volume":"6","author":"Atzm\u00fcller C","year":"2010","unstructured":"Atzm\u00fcller C, Steiner PM (2010) Experimental vignette studies in survey research. Methodology-European Journal of Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences 6(3): 128\u2013138.","journal-title":"Methodology-European Journal of Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2021.789327"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01402380903065256"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcl\/avac012"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_1","volume-title":"After Disaster: Agenda Setting, Public Policy, and Focusing Events.","author":"Birkland TA","year":"1997","unstructured":"Birkland TA (1997) After Disaster: Agenda Setting, Public Policy, and Focusing Events. Georgetown University Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-0386.2007.00378.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/AAAJ-06-2022-5856"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14719037.2024.2337843"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0275074019856123"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/gove.12161"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/puar.13293"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-6210.2011.02506.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/01492063231194968"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-019-00146-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2022.101688"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/419739"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14719037.2021.2006973"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2021.101666"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jopart\/muab023"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14719037.2019.1679234"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780190067397.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eap.2021.05.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14719037.2022.2095001"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14719037.2022.2107696"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_3_3_29_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Cultivating trustworthy artificial intelligence in digital government","volume":"40","author":"Harrison TM","year":"2020","unstructured":"Harrison TM, Luna-Reyes LF (2020) Cultivating trustworthy artificial intelligence in digital government. Social Science Computer Review 40(2): 1\u201318.","journal-title":"Social Science Computer Review"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2023.101876"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-006-9111-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14719037.2022.2144938"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/biomet\/73.1.13"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2021.756242"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_35_1","first-page":"757","volume-title":"Towards accountability in the use of artificial intelligence for public administrations AIES \u201821: Proceedings of the 2021 AAAI\/ACM conference on AI, ethics, and society4th AAAI\/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society (AIES)","author":"Loi M","year":"2021","unstructured":"Loi M, Spielkamp M, ASSOC CM (2021) Towards accountability in the use of artificial intelligence for public administrations AIES \u201821: Proceedings of the 2021 AAAI\/ACM conference on AI, ethics, and society. In: 4th AAAI\/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society (AIES), pp.757\u2013766."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/puar.13391"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14719030801928490"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2017.0357"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10796-022-10269-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1748-8583.12393"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14719037.2018.1473478"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1354068819868908"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-6210.2009.02038.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-0491.2012.01593.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9299.00218"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/0022-4537.00153"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-023-01635-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techsoc.2021.101647"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108973823"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/00208523231211751"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/0960085X.2021.1960905"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-021-00450-x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/padm.12742"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/puar.13754"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0095399711412931"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14719037.2015.1112423"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jopart\/muu024"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/puar.13602"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/17516234.2022.2123699"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1369118X.2023.2239895"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-006-9112-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/dap.2020.19"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_3_3_63_1","first-page":"52","article-title":"Designing valid and reliable vignette experiments for survey research: A case study on the fair gender income gap","volume":"7","author":"Steiner PM","year":"2016","unstructured":"Steiner PM, Atzm\u00fcller C, Su D (2016) Designing valid and reliable vignette experiments for survey research: A case study on the fair gender income gap. Journal of Methods and Measurement in the Social Sciences 7(2): 52\u201394.","journal-title":"Journal of Methods and Measurement in the Social Sciences"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1475-6765.00513"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.29173\/irie136"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aat5991"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_67_1","volume-title":"Encouraging Public Cooperation with the Police and Courts Through","author":"Tyler TR","year":"2002","unstructured":"Tyler TR, Huo YJ (2002) Encouraging Public Cooperation with the Police and Courts Through. New York: Russell Sage Foundation."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14494035.2020.1855800"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2022.101714"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/20539517221100449"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2023.101803"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14719037.2022.2070243"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2024.101939"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_74_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tele.2024.102134"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_75_1","volume-title":"The Theory of Social and Economic Organizations","author":"Weber M","year":"2012","unstructured":"Weber M (2012) The Theory of Social and Economic Organizations. Connecticut: Martino Fine Books."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10439463.2023.2241965"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2021.101652"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/insr.12492"}],"container-title":["Big Data &amp; Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/20539517251392100","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/20539517251392100","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/20539517251392100","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T13:01:33Z","timestamp":1777381293000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/20539517251392100"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/20539517251392100"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/20539517251392100","relation":{},"ISSN":["2053-9517","2053-9517"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2053-9517","type":"print"},{"value":"2053-9517","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,28]]},"article-number":"20539517251392100"}}