{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T16:03:44Z","timestamp":1777392224571,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,1]],"date-time":"2025-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1735689600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Journal of Alzheimer's Disease Reports"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This project has investigated the role of the Bacillus Calmette-Gu\u00e9rin (BCG) vaccine as a potential treatment against Alzheimer's disease (AD) and related dementias (ADRD).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To further establish that BCG treatment results in lower risk of ADRD through novel machine learning methods and to analyze the heterogeneity of treatment effects.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This retrospective cohort study was conducted from May 28, 1987 to May 6, 2021, in patients who were 50 years or older and were diagnosed with non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC). Follow-up duration was 15-years. Machine learning algorithms using survival analysis and the random forest algorithm were the primary methods of data analysis.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The research has found that on average, NMIBC patients who received BCG treatment had a 6.9% (95% CI: 0.43%, 13.4%) lower risk of developing ADRD compared to those who did not. Heterogeneous treatment effects were also detected for those with a history of mental health disorders and also for those with a history of respiratory diseases. Those with mental health disorders were at a 14.7% (95% CI: 0.6%, 28.9%) reduced risk of ADRD if they received BCG treatment compared to no BCG treatment. Additionally, those taking BCG with respiratory diseases increased risk of ADRD by 13.6% (95% CI: 1.1%, 26.1%) compared to those with no BCG treatment.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>BCG is associated with a lower risk of ADRD through novel analysis methods and has detected heterogeneity of treatment effects. This presents BCG as a potential low-cost method, with few side-effects, to prevent ADRD.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1177\/25424823251317955","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]],"date-time":"2025-01-31T05:42:48Z","timestamp":1738302168000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Heterogeneous treatment effects of BCG vaccine on Alzheimer's disease risk"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0486-0038","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Irfan","family":"Chaudhuri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA"},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, 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