{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,18]],"date-time":"2026-07-18T14:03:04Z","timestamp":1784383384050,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782864000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782864000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000026","name":"National Institute on Drug Abuse","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["U24DA058307, U01DA036935, and U01DA036939"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U24DA058307, U01DA036935, and U01DA036939"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000026","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000027","name":"National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["U24AA020801, U01AA020793, and U01AA020802"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U24AA020801, U01AA020793, and U01AA020802"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000027","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000060","name":"National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["R24AI067039, P30AI027757, P30AI050410, and P30AI27767"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R24AI067039, P30AI027757, P30AI050410, and P30AI27767"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000060","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Substance Use: Research and Treatment"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To understand the trade-offs between different statistical modeling approaches, using real world data with small sub-populations, with rare exposures and increasingly rare outcomes. In particular, to compare adjusted regression, inverse probability weighting, and matching.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Data for these analyses came from the RADAR (N=1,134) and combined CNICS\/JHHCC (N=14,434) cohorts. We estimated prevalence ratios (PRs) for self-reported use of specific substances comparing subpopulations (SP), SP-1 vs SP-3 and SP-2 vs SP-3, where SP-1 was the largest proportion (92% in RADAR, 81% in CNICS\/JHHCC), SP2 was moderate proportion (18% in CNICS\/JHHCC) and SP-3 was the smallest proportion (8% in RADAR, 1% in CNICS\/JHHCC) of the population. We calculated PRs using 1) unadjusted relative risk regression (RR); and adjusted estimates controlling for age, race\/ethnicity, study site, and year of interview using: 2) standard adjustment in RR; 3) stabilized inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW); and 4) matching with up to 3 matches from SP-1 or SP-2 per SP-3 participant.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>For most substances, all methods yielded consistent estimates. There were large weights in some of the IPTW analyses and in three cases these resulted in substantially divergent estimates. For the comparison between SP-1 and SP-3, the estimate for smoking was 1.3-fold greater in the matched analysis (PR=1.33, 95% CI: 1.02-1.75) than in IPTW (PR=1.03, 95% CI: 0.78-1.37 ATE and PR=1.05, 95% CI: 0.88-1.26 ATT). Even more extreme divergence in estimates was observed for differences between SP-2 and SP-3 with respect to methamphetamine\/amphetamine, (IPTW-ATE: PR=1.51, 95% CI: 0.79-2.89; IPTW-ATT: PR=2.36, 95% CI: 1.36-4.12); vs Matching: PR=2.71, 95%CI: 1.47-4.99) and cocaine (IPTW-ATE: PR=1.15, 95% CI: 0.55-2.38; IPTW-ATT: PR=1.81, 95% CI: 1.03-3.18); vs Matching: PR=1.38, 95%CI: 0.76-2.53).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The combination of a rare exposure and a rare outcome can produce challenges for commonly used confounding adjustment strategies, and it is often best to compare different modeling approaches to gain greater insight.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1177\/29768357261469399","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]],"date-time":"2026-07-16T14:47:36Z","timestamp":1784213256000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comparing Regression Adjustment, Matching, and Inverse Probability Weights in Small Sub-Populations in the HIV SUCCESS Consortium: A Real-World Data Example"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3361-8080","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lydia N.","family":"Drumright","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ryan P.","family":"Kyle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dominique","family":"Heinke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sonia","family":"Napravnik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of North Carolina"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Geetanjali","family":"Chander","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Catherine R.","family":"Lesko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Johns Hopkins University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ross A.","family":"Baiers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Northwestern University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brian","family":"Mustanski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Northwestern University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Edward","family":"Cachay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mayo Clinic School of Medicine"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michele","family":"Kipke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Sothern California"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard D.","family":"Moore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Johns Hopkins University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kenneth H.","family":"Mayer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fenway Institute"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luis","family":"Parra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Michigan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rob J.","family":"Fredericksen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sari","family":"Reisner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fenway Institute"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katerina","family":"Christopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George A.","family":"Yendewa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Case Western Reserve University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marianna","family":"Baum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Florida International University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Bamford","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Northwestern University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mari M.","family":"Kitahata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael S.","family":"Saag","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Alabama"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Heidi M.","family":"Crane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1771-1776","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joseph A. C.","family":"Delaney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bridget M.","family":"Whitney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_7_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwn164"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.i1981"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2026.1380586"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyaf114"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2531395"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwaa205"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-011-9637-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1214\/07-STS227D"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.2002.001115"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ckj\/sfab158"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.6607"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_13_2","volume-title":"Causal Inference: What If","author":"Hernan M","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hernan M, Robins J. Causal Inference: What If. Boca Raton: Chapman & Hall\/CRC; 2020."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00273171.2011.568786"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.3200"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_16_2","volume-title":"Case-Control studies: design, conduct, analysis","author":"Schlesselman JJ","year":"1982","unstructured":"Schlesselman JJ. Case-Control studies: design, conduct, analysis. New York: Oxford Univ. Press; 1982."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_17_2","volume-title":"Modern epidemiology","author":"Rothman KJ","year":"2021","unstructured":"Rothman KJ, Lash TL, VanderWeele TJ, et al. Modern epidemiology. Fourth edition Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer \/ Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2021."},{"key":"e_1_3_7_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1198\/000313004X5824"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00001648-200009000-00011"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Stuart EA. Matching Methods for Causal Inference: A Review and a Look Forward. Stat Sci;25. doi:10.1214\/09-STS313. Epub ahead of print 1 February 2010.","DOI":"10.1214\/09-STS313"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyaa163"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-019-02766-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0000000000001886"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-024-01147-z"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dym231"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2174\/157016207779316369"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-022-03947-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2023.111043"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.5705"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.12197"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/epirev\/mxab003"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwr283"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwaf175"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Debray TPA Nguyen T-L Platt RW. Comparative Effectiveness and Personalized Medicine Research Using Real-World Data. 1st edn. Boca Raton: Chapman and Hall\/CRC. 10.1201\/9781003300809. Epub ahead of print 11 March 2026.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781003300809"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-025-04877-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_36_2","article-title":"The code used in the What If book: Stata","author":"Murray E","unstructured":"Murray E, Logan R. The code used in the What If book: Stata. Miguel Hernan. https:\/\/miguelhernan.org\/whatifbook","journal-title":"Miguel Hernan"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/biomet\/80.1.27"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.1047"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-009-9341-z"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.6607"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.10078"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwh090"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jrsm.1511"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0000000000001677"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0962280210386207"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000012777"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.8741"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1214\/07-STS227"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwp436"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_50_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwv339"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwac043"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_52_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1541-0420.2005.00377.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_53_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12874-020-00947-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_54_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2288-12-70"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_55_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/09540121.2023.2223899"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_56_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0000000000002836"},{"key":"e_1_3_7_57_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2021.08.028"}],"container-title":["Substance Use: Research and Treatment"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/29768357261469399","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/29768357261469399","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/29768357261469399","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,18]],"date-time":"2026-07-18T13:17:11Z","timestamp":1784380631000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/29768357261469399"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"references-count":56,"alternative-id":["10.1177\/29768357261469399"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/29768357261469399","relation":{},"ISSN":["2976-8357","2976-8357"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2976-8357","type":"print"},{"value":"2976-8357","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"article-number":"29768357261469399"}}