{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T09:34:50Z","timestamp":1775554490420,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":160,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2008,8,1]],"date-time":"2008-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1217548800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal for the History of Astronomy"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2008,8]]},"DOI":"10.1177\/002182860803900303","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,8]],"date-time":"2015-05-08T22:59:28Z","timestamp":1431125968000},"page":"313-344","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["The Making of a Tychonic Cosmology: Cristoforo Borri and the Development of Tycho Brahe's Astronomical System"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"39","author":[{"given":"Lu\u00eds Miguel","family":"Carolino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Museum of Science \u2014 University of Lisbon"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2008,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-002182860803900303","first-page":"277","volume-title":"Tychonic and semi-Tychonic world systems","author":"Schofield C. J.","year":"1981"},{"key":"bibr2-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Biancani Giuseppe, Sphaera mundi seu cosmographia demonstrativa ac facili methodo tradita (Modena, 1653), 27. This work was first published in Bologna in 1620. Nevertheless, the Swiss Jesuit astronomer Johann Baptist Cysat (1587\u20131657), in his treatise on the 1618 comets, had already suggested the superiority of the Tychonic system: \u201cAtque hanc nos arbitramur esse caeteris expeditiorem ac clariorem sphaerarum coelestium hypothesin cui sane quam proxime respondent motuum et phaenomenorum coelestium praesertim eclipsium observationes.\u201d Cysat J. B., Mathemata astronomica de loco, motu, magnitudine et causis cometae qui sub finem anni 1618 et initium anni 1619 in coelo fulsit (Ingolstadt, 1619), 36 [56]. On Cysat, see Siebert H. Die gro\u00dfe kosmologische Kontroverse: Rekonstruktionsversuche anhand des Itinerarium exstaticum von Athanasius Kircher SJ (1602\u20131680) (Stuttgart, 2006), 316\u201325."},{"key":"bibr3-002182860803900303","unstructured":"See Baldini, \u2018Legem impone subactis\u2019 (ref. 1), 217\u201350. See also Blackwell Richard J. Galileo, Bellarmine, and the Bible (Notre Dame, 1991), 148\u201353."},{"key":"bibr4-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Lerner, \u201cL'entr\u00e9e de Tycho Brahe\u201d (ref. 1), 178."},{"key":"bibr5-002182860803900303","unstructured":"D'Elia Pasquale M., Galileo in Cina: Relazioni attraverso il Collegio Romano tra Galileo e i gesuiti scienziati missionari in Cina (1610\u20131640) (Rome, 1947), 36\u201338; and Lattis, Between Copernicus and Galileo (ref. 1), 204\u20135."},{"key":"bibr6-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Schofield, Tychonic and semi-Tychonic world systems (ref. 1), 227: \u201cthe majority of those who rejected the Copernican system on religious grounds, and who, when developments in cosmology rendered obsolete an entirely geocentric planetary theory, found that of Tycho an acceptable compromise, were members of the Society of Jesus.\u201d Similar statements are made by Ziggelaar, \u201cJesuit astronomy north of the Alps\u201d (ref. 1), 109 and, recently, by William Donahue, \u201cAstronomy\u201d, in Park K., Daston L. (eds), The Cambridge history of science, iii: Early modern science (Cambridge, 2006), 562\u201395, p. 589."},{"key":"bibr7-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Schofield, Tychonic and semi-Tychonic world systems (ref. 1), 187."},{"key":"bibr8-002182860803900303","first-page":"55","volume-title":"A history of magic and experimental science","volume":"2","author":"Thorndike Lynn","year":"1958"},{"key":"bibr9-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Lattis, Between Copernicus and Galileo (ref. 1), 208; Lerner, \u201cL'entr\u00e9e de Tycho Brahe\u201d (ref. 1), 157; Dollo, Galileo Galilei (ref. 1), 228; and Strano, Truffa, \u201cTycho Brahe cosmologist\u201d (ref. 8), 89."},{"key":"bibr10-002182860803900303","unstructured":"In considering Borri's cosmological ideas, historians such as Lattis, Lerner (\u201cL'entr\u00e9e de Tycho Brahe\u201d (ref. 1)), Dollo and Besomi-Camerota have analysed only the 1612 Milan lessons while others have focused exclusively on the 1631 Collecta astronomica. These others are Schofield, Donahue, Lerner (Le monde des sph\u00e8res (ref. 8)) and Randles (ref. 8)."},{"key":"bibr11-002182860803900303","first-page":"275","volume-title":"A Companhia de Jesus e a missiona\u00e7\u00e3o no Oriente","author":"Baldini U.","year":"2000"},{"key":"bibr12-002182860803900303","first-page":"117","author":"Baldini","year":"1951","journal-title":"Anais da Academia Portuguesa de Hist\u00f3ria, 2nd ser."},{"key":"bibr13-002182860803900303","first-page":"25","author":"Mercati A.","year":"1951","journal-title":"Pontificia Academia Scientarum. Acta"},{"key":"bibr14-002182860803900303","volume-title":"Relatione della nuova missione delli PP. della Compagnia di Giesu, al regno della Cocincina","year":"1631"},{"key":"bibr15-002182860803900303","first-page":"229","volume-title":"A \u2018aula da esfera\u2019 do Col\u00e9gio de Santo Ant\u00e3o no s\u00e9culo XVII","author":"Baldini","year":"1972"},{"key":"bibr16-002182860803900303","first-page":"399","author":"Carvalho J.","year":"1943","journal-title":"Biblos"},{"key":"bibr17-002182860803900303","unstructured":"From a letter that Borri addressed in Rome to the General of Society of Jesus (ref. 24), it is clear that Borri departed to Rome in search of support for the publication of his Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), a book which \u2014 As mentioned below \u2014 Was facing difficulties in being published in Portugal due to the opposition of the influential Portuguese Jesuit Sebasti\u00e3o do Couto."},{"key":"bibr18-002182860803900303","unstructured":"According to Charles De Visch, in Rome Borri left the Jesuits and entered the Cistercian Order, taking the name of Father Onofrio. See De Visch, Bibliotheca scriptorum sacri ordinis Cisterciensis elogiis plurimorum maxime illustrium adornata (Cologne, 1656), 71. There is some controversy, however, over whether or not he actually managed to be accepted by the Cistercians. See Sommervogel Carlos, Biblioth\u00e8que de la Compagnie de Jesus (Paris, 1890), i, 1821\u20132."},{"key":"bibr19-002182860803900303","volume-title":"Collecta astronomica ex doctrina \u2026 de tribus caelis aereo, sydereo, empyreo: Opus sane mathematicum, philosophicum et theologicum sive scripturarium","year":"1631"},{"key":"bibr20-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Nevertheless, although Borri, in his Collecta astronomica, published data from earlier astronomical observations, his book is not a collection of different pieces on astronomy written by Borri at different periods, as Francesco Surdich has said: \u201d [Collecta astronomica] \u00e8 un volume costituito da vari scritti di carattere astronomico redatti dal Borri in diversi periodi.\u201d Surdich, \u201cL' attivit\u00e0 di padre Cristoforo Borri\u201d (ref. 13), 71."},{"key":"bibr21-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri Cristoforo, De astrologia universa tractatus. Dividitur in duas partes quarum prima de contemplatrici astronomia, secunda de practica breviter, sed dilucide ita pertractat ut deesse plane aut desiderari posse nihil videatur, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, Rome, Ms. Fondo Gesuitico 587. Ugo Baldini seems to have been the first historian to take notice of this manuscript: Baldini, \u2018Legem impone subactis\u2019 (ref. 1), 169. The manuscript consists of a copy by Albertus de Albertis, Jesuit professor of mathematics in Milan, in 1615, of the lecture notes delivered by Borri in 1612. On the frontispiece one reads as follows: \u201cRdo P. Christoforo Burro Societatis Jesu. Auctore in amplissimo Braydensi Collegio scientiarum mathematicarum doctore praestantissimo Anno MDCXII. Qui deinde ad Indos migravit Anno 1615. Albertus de Albertis.\u201d Another copy of his De astrologia universa tractatus, dated from 1611\u201312, is preserved in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana, Milan (Tractatus astrologiae, Ms. A.83 sussidio). This document was identified by Besomi and Camerota, Galileo e il Parnaso Tychonico (ref. 8), 119."},{"key":"bibr22-002182860803900303","unstructured":"See ref. 21."},{"key":"bibr23-002182860803900303","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110852134.45"},{"key":"bibr24-002182860803900303","unstructured":"This letter, entitled Al molto Reu. Pre. Generale, Christoforo Borri sopra il libro che ho composto per stampare delli tre Cieli, was published by Santos, \u201cVicissitudes da obra do Pe. Crist\u00f3v\u00e3o Borri\u201d (ref. 12), 143\u201350 (see pp. 143\u20134)."},{"key":"bibr25-002182860803900303","unstructured":"\u201cIntendento questo [that the Chinese believed the heavens to be fluid] il Padre Francesco Viera che all'hora era Visitatore in Macao mi ordin\u00f2 facesse un tratatto, con che persuadesse alli Nostri Padri della Cina a lasciare l'opinione delli XI Cieli d'Europa, et si conformassero con li Cinese gi\u00e0 che mostraua esser pi\u00fa verissimile la loro opinione che la nostra di qu\u00e0\u201d, in Santos, \u201cVicissitudes da obra do Pe. Crist\u00f3v\u00e3o Borri\u201d (ref. 12), 144."},{"key":"bibr26-002182860803900303","unstructured":"On the relationship between Borri and Pietro della Valle, see Mercati, \u201cNotizie sul gesuita Crisotoforo Borri\u201d (ref. 13)."},{"key":"bibr27-002182860803900303","unstructured":"\u201d [P. Borri] haveva composto un libro in questo proposito, e dichiarando la opinione di Tichone, la verit\u00e0 di essa co' i suoi discorsi, per via di Theologia, di Mathematica, e di Filosofia, distesamente havava mostrata. Questo libro del Padre, come la presenza dell'istesso mi disse, prima che si mandasse alle stampe, conforme \u00e8 l'uso nostro, quando egli veniva da Cocincina, si perd\u00e8 nel mare, per ragion di una tempesta che si lev\u00f2; e cosi un'hora cattiva se ne port\u00f2 via le fatiche di molto tempo.\u201d Borri \/ Della Valle, Compendio (ref. 30), Vat. Persiano 9, 4\u20135."},{"key":"bibr28-002182860803900303","unstructured":"This title was mentioned by Sommervogel, Biblioth\u00e8que (ref. 18), 1822. Note, nevertheless, that Sommervogel did not have access to the original treatise. It is most likely that he translated the Italian title of the volume held at the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana directly into Latin (see ref. 30)."},{"key":"bibr29-002182860803900303","unstructured":"According to Borri, his treatise, translated into Persian under the title of Risalah- i Padri Khristafarus Burris Isavi dar tufiq-i jadid dunya, was very well received by the sages of the Middle East: \u201cVenendo poi per Europa, nel camino dell'Indie ritrouai il Signor Pietro della Valle, al quale come curioso comunicai questa dottrina [fluidity of the heavens], et lui di poi la comunic\u00f2 alli savij della Persia, Armenia, et Arabia, quali tutti come lui stesso afferma tanto sodisfatti ne restarono, che l'antepongono ad ogn'altra opinione\u201d. Borri, Al molto Reu. Pre. Generale (ref. 24), in Santos, \u201cVicissitudes da obra do Pe. Crist\u00f3v\u00e3o Borri\u201d (ref. 12), 144."},{"key":"bibr30-002182860803900303","first-page":"84","year":"1958","journal-title":"Anatolia"},{"key":"bibr31-002182860803900303","unstructured":"\u201cCapitolo primo della figura del Mondo\u201d, Borri \/ della Valle, Compendio (ref. 30), Vat. Persiano 9, 8\u20139."},{"key":"bibr32-002182860803900303","unstructured":"\u201cCapitolo secondo, nel quale si mostra come con questa figura del Mondo tutte le apparenze in cielo si salvano\u201d, Borri \/ della Valle, Compendio (ref. 30), Vat. Persiano 9, 10\u201317."},{"key":"bibr33-002182860803900303","unstructured":"\u201cCapitolo terzo delle apparenze che non possono salvarsi nella costitution della figura ordinaria del Mondo, che in questa che noi faciamo si salvano meglio\u201d, Borri \/ della Valle, Compendio (ref. 30), Vat. Persiano 9, 17\u201322."},{"key":"bibr34-002182860803900303","unstructured":"\u201cCapitolo quarto che \u00e8 sigillo (cio \u00e8 conclusione) de' sopradetti discorsi\u201d, Borri \/ della Valle, Compendio (ref. 30), Vat. Persiano 9, 22\u201327."},{"key":"bibr35-002182860803900303","unstructured":"A couple of years later, Borri was sent to Coimbra to teach mathematics. He would remain in Coimbra for one academic year (1626\/27), returning again to Lisbon to teach at the Aula da Esfera (Class on the Sphere) at the Col\u00e9gio de Santo Ant\u00e3o (1627\/28). From this period in Portugal, there exists a manuscript work by Borri entitled Tractatus aliquot de mathematica disciplina traditi a Pe. Christophoro Brono e Societate Iesu, which is now preserved at the Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa (Ms. FG. 2378). This tractatus is made up of three parts: \u201cQuaestio unica: Num matematicae disciplinae verae scientiae nomen induant?\u201d (ff. 52r\u201359r), \u201cSphaera mundi\u201d (ff. 60r\u201390v) and \u201cSphaera mundi quo ad eam partem quae est de figura et magnitudine corporum universorum\u201d (ff. 91r\u2013107r)."},{"key":"bibr36-002182860803900303","unstructured":"According to Borri's statement, after being sent to Coimbra to teach mathematics, he was ordered by the Spanish king, who by that time ruled over Portugal, to write a book on nautical science. In 1627, the work was already completed: \u201cmi mand\u00f2 [the king] per i suoi ufficiali che componessi un libro dell'arte del navigare, il che ho fatto con tanta sollecitudine che gia sta in procinto di uscire alla stampa, insieme con la vera sentenza della tenuit\u00e0 e fluidit\u00e0 de Cieli\u201d in Surdich, \u201cL' attivit\u00e0 di padre Cristoforo Borri\u201d (ref. 13), 122. Borri was most likely referring to his Arte de navegar, a treatise on nautical science which he had taught at the Aula da Esfera of the Col\u00e9gio de Santo Ant\u00e3o in 1627\/28, in addition to his Nova astronomia (see refs 37 and 39). Two manuscript copies of his Arte de navegar are held respectively in the Biblioteca Geral da Universidade de Coimbra, ms. 44, and the Biblioteca P\u00fablica de \u00c9vora, cod. CXVI\/1\u201317 n\u00b0 2. The Coimbra text was edited by A. da Costa Fontoura, Arte de navegar pelo Padre Mestre Crist\u00f3v\u00e3o Bruno [= Borri] (1628) (Lisbon, 1940)."},{"key":"bibr37-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Two copies of Borri's Lisbon lectures on cosmology, entitled Nova astronomia na qual se refuta a antiga da multid\u00e3o de 12 ceos pondo so tres: Aereo, cidereo e impireo, are preserved in the Biblioteca Geral da Universidade de Coimbra (ms. 44, ff. 65r\u2013143v) and in Biblioteca P\u00fablica de \u00c9vora (cod. CXXVI\/1\u201317, n\u00b0 1). Except for some orthographic differences and the occasional use of synonyms, the texts are similar. Nevertheless, the Coimbra manuscript lacks the fifth part which focuses the physical questions on the heavens according to the new astronomy, and the sixth part on the creation of the heavens is incomplete in this manuscript. The \u00c9vora manuscript is provided with some diagrams absent in the Coimbra copy."},{"key":"bibr38-002182860803900303","first-page":"39","volume-title":"Documents in\u00e9dits concernant la Compagnie de J\u00e9sus","author":"Le Jeunehomme Fr","year":"1864"},{"key":"bibr39-002182860803900303","unstructured":"There is no doubt that the Nova astronomia (as well as the Arte de navegar) consists of the lectures Borri read at the Col\u00e9gio de Santo Ant\u00e3o: On the final page of the Coimbra manuscript we are told that \u201call these subjects were given at the College of S. Ant\u00e3o by Father Cristov\u00e3o Bruno\u201d (\u201cTodas estas materias for\u00e3o dadas em o Collegio de S. Ant\u00e3o pello Pe. Me.Christou\u00e3o Bruno\u201d), Borri, Nova astronomia (ref. 37), BGUC, f. 153v. In Portugal, Borri adopted the surname Brono (or Bruno) for the reason that \u2018Borri\u2019 is regrettably similar to the Portuguese word for \u2018ass\u2019."},{"key":"bibr40-002182860803900303","unstructured":"The Collecta is made up of six sections: (1) On ancient astronomy and its confutation (De antiqua astronomia et eius confutatione) (1\u201372); (2) On the new phenomena observed in recent times (De novis apparentiis quae nostris temporibus observatae sunt) (73\u2013159); (3) On the fluidity of the heavens and planetary motion in the \u2018aura aetherea\u2019 (De coelorum tenuitate, ac motu planetarum in aura aetherea) (161\u2013221); (4) On the threefold number of the heavens (De numero caelorum tribus conclusionibus absolvemus hanc quartam partem, quae est resolutoria nostrae hac de re sententiae) (223\u201393); (5) Physical questions on the heavens according to the new astronomy (Quaestiones physicae de caelo iuxta novam astronomiam) (295\u2013390); and (6) On the creation of the heavens (De creatione caelorum) (391\u2013470)."},{"key":"bibr41-002182860803900303","unstructured":"This point has already been made by Santos, \u201cVicissitudes da obra do Pe. Crist\u00f3v\u00e3o Borri\u201d (ref. 12), 134."},{"key":"bibr42-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Certainly Borri's book was previously submitted to the internal Jesuit censorship. However, I have no knowledge of documental evidence of that censorship."},{"key":"bibr43-002182860803900303","unstructured":"See ref. 24."},{"key":"bibr44-002182860803900303","unstructured":"See Santos, \u201cVicissitudes da obra do Pe. Crist\u00f3v\u00e3o Borri\u201d (ref. 12), 146. Indeed Borri, in dealing with the celebrated quaestio de certitudine mathematicarum, emphasized the scientific character of mathematics and openly criticized the position defended by Couto in the Coimbran Commentaries on Aristotle's dialectics (1606). See Borri C. Tractatus aliquot de mathematica disciplina: Num matematicae disciplinae verae scientiae nomen induant (ref. 35), ff. 52r\u201359r."},{"key":"bibr45-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Al molto Reu. Pre. Generale (see ref. 24), in Santos, \u201cVicissitudes da obra do Pe. Crist\u00f3v\u00e3o Borri\u201d (ref. 12), 143."},{"key":"bibr46-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), f. 24r."},{"key":"bibr47-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri reported his approach to the Tychonic planetary system in De astrologia universa (ref. 21), ff. 24r\u201324v."},{"key":"bibr48-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Schofield, Tychonic and semi-Tychonic world systems (ref. 1), 28."},{"key":"bibr49-002182860803900303","unstructured":"\u201cnostra hypothesis eodem modo constituit omnium planetarum circulos respectu solis, et terrae, ergo et haec salvat.\u201d Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), f. 26v."},{"key":"bibr50-002182860803900303","unstructured":"\u201cIam ex tunc mecum ipse statui nullo modo ponendos tot caelos reales, et in tot partes divisos, ne dicam confusos, sed puros circulos a planetis describi, et hos solum imaginarios.\u201d Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), f. 24r."},{"key":"bibr51-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri referred to the Aristotelian theory of comets in three different places in the context of his description of the \u201cterrestrial sphere\u201d (see Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), ff. 6v, 7r and 10v). This fact, together with his position on celestial incorruptibility, demonstrates that, in his Italian period, Borri almost certainly endorsed the position that comets reach to the upper boundary of the region of the air."},{"key":"#cr-split#-bibr52-002182860803900303.1","unstructured":"On the relation between Tycho's defence of a geo-heliocentric system with no solid orbs and these two astronomical arguments (observation of the movement of the 1577 comet and speculation about the parallax of Mars), see Dreyer J. L. E. Tycho Brahe (New York, 1963), 158-85"},{"key":"#cr-split#-bibr52-002182860803900303.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thoren Victor E., The Lord of Uraniborg: A biography of Tycho Brahe (Cambridge, 1990), 236-64, esp. pp. 255-8","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511665417"},{"key":"#cr-split#-bibr52-002182860803900303.3","unstructured":"Granada Miguel A., El debate cosmol\u00f3gico en 1588: Bruno, Brahe, Rothmann, Ursus, R\u00f6slin (Naples, 1996), 31-59"},{"key":"#cr-split#-bibr52-002182860803900303.4","unstructured":"and idem, \"Did Tycho eliminate the celestial spheres before 1586?\", Journal for the history of astronomy, xxxvii (2006), 2006-45. A broad interpretation of Tycho's abandoning of solid orbs, taking into account not only astronomical and optical reasons, but also Tycho's philosophical and scriptural motivations, can be found in Lerner Michel-Pierre, Tre saggi sulla cosmologia alla fine del Cinquecento (Naples, 1992), 73-104, and Lerner, Le monde des sph\u00e8res (ref. 8), ii, 39-66. See also Van den Broecke Steven, \"Teratology and the publication of Tycho Brahe's new world system (1588)\", Journal for the history of astronomy, xxxvii (2006), 2006-17."},{"key":"bibr53-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri used this example in De astrologia universa (ref. 21), ff. 26v\u201327r."},{"key":"bibr54-002182860803900303","unstructured":"\u201cDicendum [est] secundo certissimum esse lunam non esse perfectissime rotundam sed multis vallibus, ac montibus esse inaequalem. Probabilius etiam est cetera astra esse montibus referta sicut luna. De luna non indiget probatione cum sensu pateat beneficio perspicilij, quod nuper a Galileo de Galileis florentino Patavinii Gymnasij publico mathematico repertum esse dicitur, quod quidem perspicilium statim ac praemanibus habui, observavi hos montes, et valles in luna, sed non sum ausus ante proferre ne alicuius temeritatis notam subirem, sed postquam haec et alia, quae suo loco dicemus iam video ab ipso Galileo observata immo et in lucem edita, veritatem hanc confirmare, et propalare non dubito.\u201d Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), ff. 13r\u201313v (our italics)."},{"key":"bibr55-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), f. 15v."},{"key":"bibr56-002182860803900303","unstructured":"See Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), f. 16r. Borri mentioned having himself verified Galileo's observations of the moons of Jupiter: \u201cHoc non indiget phantasiae ut dictum est de montibus in luna, cum sensu pateat ope eiusdem perspicilli, quae quidem stellae ab ipso Gallileo omnes observatae sunt, et ego ipse quam diligentissime potui observavi\u201d (f. 16r). As far as the rings of Saturn and the phases of Venus are concerned, Borri seemed to have based himself upon Galileo's Sidereus nuncius and Kepler's Dioptrice."},{"key":"bibr57-002182860803900303","unstructured":"As is clear, for example, in the case of the phases of Venus: Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), f. 16."},{"key":"bibr58-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), f. 24v."},{"key":"bibr59-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), f. 25r. Nevertheless, unlike the case with the diagram of Tycho, in Borri's diagram the orbit of Venus is tangent to that of the Moon, and the orbit of Saturn apparently touches the heaven of the fixed stars."},{"key":"bibr60-002182860803900303","unstructured":"See, particularly, Besomi, Camerota, Galileo e il Parnaso Tychonico (ref. 8). See also Rurale F., I gesuiti a Milano: Religione e politica nel secondo cinquecento (Rome, 1992), 137\u201376."},{"key":"bibr61-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Besomi, Camerota, Galileo e il Parnaso Tychonico (ref. 8), 105\u201333, esp. pp. 129\u201330."},{"key":"bibr62-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Cattenius O. Libri IV Matheseos, in Krayer, Mathematik im Studienplan der Jesuiten (ref. 1), 287\u20138. On Cattenius's adherence to the Tychonic system, see Krayer, Mathematik, 135\u20137."},{"key":"bibr63-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Cattenius, Matheseos (ref. 62), 284."},{"key":"bibr64-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Cattenius, Matheseos (ref. 62), 288\u20139."},{"key":"bibr65-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Cattenius, Matheseos (ref. 62), 289."},{"key":"bibr66-002182860803900303","unstructured":"At the time that Cattenius was teaching mathematics at Mainz, the theses of celestial fluidity and corruptibility were strongly criticized by Jesuit philosophers and, in general, by the Jesuit hierarchy. For example, Gerolamo Piccolomini, a Jesuit professor of philosophy at the Collegio Romano, in 1612, stood against those positions, by arguing that heavenly bodies move inside solid orbs and celestial matter should be considered to be incorruptible. See Dollo, Galileo Galilei (ref. 1), 224\u20138."},{"key":"bibr67-002182860803900303","unstructured":"See ref. 66."},{"key":"bibr68-002182860803900303","unstructured":"In fact, this position of Borri's broadly demonstrates the increasing tendency amongst Jesuit mathematicians to accept the notion of the fluidity of the heavens by that time. In 1627\/28, Borri described to his Lisbon pupils a meeting he had had with Giuseppe Biancani, when he was still a professor at Milan (in the early 1610s), in which Borri had outlined to the professor of mathematics at Parma his position on the fluid nature of celestial matter. According to his statement, Biancani showed a profound attachment to this theory and very likely then decided to write his Aristotelis loca mathematica (1615). Borri related the episode in the following terms: \u201cE mais claramente ainda que estes authores, affirma ser esta nossa doctrina [celestial fluidity] uerdadeira o Pe Joseph Blancano, mestre insigne na sciencia da mathematica e lente della na Cidade de Parma, o qual no mesmo tempo que eu lia em Mil\u00e3o [no anno de 1614, in the \u00c9vora ms, f. 45v], nos encontramos e falando eu com elle nesta materia se mostrou mui afei\u00e7oado a esta doctrina, e parese que daqui nasceu tomar a peito defendela, e dala a conhecer ao mundo no livro que depois imprimiu no anno de 1615 In loca mathematica Aristotelis.\u201d Borri, Nova astronomia (ref. 37), BGUC, ff. 109v\u2013110r, BPE, f. 45v. Borri also alluded to this episode in his Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 168. This increasing tendency to defend the fluidity of the heavens is also clear in the case of Christoph Scheiner. See Scheiner C. De maculis solaribus et stellis circa Iovem errantibus accuratior disquisitio (Augsburg, 1612), 50, and idem, Rosa ursina sive sol (Bracciano, 1626\u201330), 755ff. Biancani, referring to Scheiner's position on celestial fluidity, mentioned that certain Jesuit philosophers greatly appreciated it: \u201cL'opinione sua della liquidezza dei cieli \u00e8 piacciuta molto ad alcuni dei nostri Padri, lettori di Filosofia di questo Studio\u201d, in Galileo, Le opere, edited by Favaro A. (Florence, 1890\u20131909), xi, 509."},{"key":"bibr69-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), f. 25v."},{"key":"bibr70-002182860803900303","unstructured":"See de Molina L. Commentaria in primam Divi Thomae partem (Venice, 1594; 1st edn, Cuenca, 1592), 705, and Bellarmine R. The Louvain Lectures (\u2018Lectiones Lovaniensis\u2019) of Bellarmine and the autograph copy of his 1616 declaration to Galileo, edited by Baldini U., Coyne G. V. (Vatican City, 1984), 17. Nevertheless, since the Lectiones Lovaniensis remained unpublished until recently, Borri most likely had no knowledge of this text in the 1610s."},{"key":"bibr71-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), f. 25r."},{"key":"bibr72-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Randles, The unmaking of the medieval Christian cosmos (ref. 8), 177."},{"key":"bibr73-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Ibid., 116."},{"key":"bibr74-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Epistolarum astronomicarum libri was later reprinted in 1601 (Nuremberg) and in 1610 (Frankfurt). On the correspondence between Tycho and Rothmann on the nature of celestial matter, see Randles, The unmaking of the medieval Christian cosmos (ref. 8), 63\u201377. See also Mosley Adam, Bearing the heavens: Tycho Brahe and the astronomical community of the late sixteenth century (Cambridge, 2007), 70\u201380 and 89\u201396."},{"key":"bibr75-002182860803900303","first-page":"167","author":"Brahe Tycho","year":"1919","journal-title":"Tychonis Brahe Dani epistolae astronomicae"},{"key":"bibr76-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), ff. 25v\u201326r. With few exceptions, Borri did not mention explicitly which books he used in the Milan lecture notes. Although it seems very difficult to establish whether or not Borri based himself on the reading of Epistolarum astronomicarum libri, I think that it is likely that Borri had the correspondence of Tycho and Rothmann in mind when he hypothesized that celestial matter could be made up of air or fire."},{"key":"bibr77-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), ff. 25v\u201326r."},{"key":"bibr78-002182860803900303","unstructured":"\u201cIl secondo il cielo ethereo \u00f2 delle stelle, che sara alcuna quinta essenza, conforme al detto d'Aristotile.\u201d Borri \/ Della Valle, Compendio (ref. 30), Vat. Pers. 9, 22."},{"key":"bibr79-002182860803900303","unstructured":"See ref. 78. Two other references to celestial incorruptibility can be found in f. 7r and f. 12v. However, these allusions were made in the context of the exposition of traditional theory."},{"key":"bibr80-002182860803900303","unstructured":"See ref. 52."},{"key":"bibr81-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Biancani Giuseppe, Aristotelis loca mathematica (Bologna, 1615), 91\u201394. Biancani repeated this theory in his Sphaera mundi (ref. 2), 158."},{"key":"bibr82-002182860803900303","unstructured":"See ref. 45."},{"key":"bibr83-002182860803900303","unstructured":"While in Vietnam, Borri also observed the 1621 May 21 solar eclipse. He mentioned his observations of eclipses in Borri, Relatione della nuova missione delli PP. della Compagnia de Giesu al regno della Cocincina (Rome, 1631), 177\u201393."},{"key":"bibr84-002182860803900303","unstructured":"For details on Wremann, see Baldini, \u201cL'insegnamento della matematica\u201d (ref. 11), 285\u20136."},{"key":"bibr85-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Although Borri mentioned that Wremann had taught mathematics in Coimbra, according to Baldini he was responsible for a private course on mathematics at the Lisbon college, in 1614\/15, just before he went to China. See Baldini, \u201cL'insegnamento della matematica\u201d (ref. 11), 285\u20136."},{"key":"bibr86-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 117[115]\u20136."},{"key":"bibr87-002182860803900303","unstructured":"A similar diagram, although representing more comets, can be found in Cysat, Mathemata astronomica (ref. 2), 57."},{"key":"bibr88-002182860803900303","unstructured":"The complete passage reads as follows: \u201cLa prima [appearance] son le Comete, \u00f2 corpi lucidi \u2026 che in cielo apparvero nell'anno 1572 e nel 1579 di Christo, che Tychone Brahe, e tutti gli altri mathematici pi\u00f9 famosi di quel tempo osservarono che a poco a poco salirono sopra'l cielo della Luna e di Mercurio, e dopo sopra'l cielo di Venere e del Sole, e di tutti gli altri Pianeti fin'all cielo delle stelle fisse.\u201d Borri \/ Della Valle, Compendio (ref. 30), Vat. Pers. 9, 17. Note that comets are incorrectly identified in this section: The one of 1572 was most likely the \u2018new star\u2019 of 1572 and the \u201c1579 comet\u201d referred certainly to the comet of 1577 or that of 1580. In contrast to Borri's statement that the 1577 comet presented an ascending motion up to the fixed stars, Tycho and the \u201cmost famous astronomers of that time\u201d rather maintained that the comet moved with a circular orbit about the Sun in the heaven of Venus. See, for example, Tycho, De mundi aetherei recentioribus phaenomenis in Tychonis Brahe opera omnia (ref. 75), iv (Copenhagen, 1922), 160\u20131, and Maestlin Michael, Observatio et demonstratio cometae aetherei qui anno 1577 et 1578 constitutus in sphaera Veneris (T\u00fcbingen, 1578), 28\u201334 and 38\u201339."},{"key":"bibr89-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri did not state clearly that comets were meteorological phenomena ascending from the terrestrial region up to the celestial region. Nevertheless, his view of the comets' motion suggests that this was his position at that time. Later, in his Collecta astronomica, Borri took up the position that comets were made up of terrestrial exhalations, very well blended, that reached to the planetary region. He considered that this view had a single disadvantage: It would require a huge number of exhalations to produce just one comet. See Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 369."},{"key":"bibr90-002182860803900303","unstructured":"See refs 77 and 78."},{"key":"bibr91-002182860803900303","unstructured":"This position was defended, for example, by the Portuguese Aristotelian philosopher Domingos Barbosa, who served as a professor of philosophy at the Col\u00e9gio de Santo Ant\u00e3o (Lisbon) in 1631\/33. See Barbosa D., Philosophia moralis et naturalis, 1632, Biblioteca Geral da Universidade de Coimbra, ms. 2368, ff. 5r and 65r\u201366r."},{"key":"bibr92-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 298\u2013300."},{"key":"bibr93-002182860803900303","unstructured":"\u201cTertio valde probabile, cometas conflari per quandam condensationem partium aliquarum aurae aethereae, quae quidem condensatio fiat, aut immediate per Angelos, aut etiam per exhalationes elementares, aut per qualitates occultas planetarum in tali, ac tali concursu et aspectu cum reliquis astris.\u201d Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 369."},{"key":"bibr94-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 370\u20131."},{"key":"bibr95-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 372."},{"key":"bibr96-002182860803900303","first-page":"1","author":"Barker P.","year":"1993","journal-title":"Physis"},{"key":"bibr97-002182860803900303","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2709882"},{"key":"bibr98-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 309."},{"key":"bibr99-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 320\u20134."},{"key":"bibr100-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Note that by distinguishing three different zones of air \u2014 The regio infima (lower zone), the regio media (intermediate zone) and the regio suprema (higher zone) \u2014 Borri persists with a pseudo-Aristotelian tripartite division of the sphere of the air. For example, as the celebrated Jesuits of the Coimbran Col\u00e9gio das Artes (\u2018Conimbricenses\u2019) expounded in their commentary on Aristotle's Meteorologica, there are three different zones in the sphere of the air. The higher zone (regio suprema), which is the space from the concave surface of the sphere of fire down to a position just below the tops of the highest mountains, is very hot because of its proximity to fire and for the reason that a high concentration of fiery exhalations occur there, causing the appearance of comets in this upper zone of the air. The middle zone (regio media) is the zone from the peak of the highest mountains down to the place where the reflected rays of the Sun cannot reach. Because of this, the middle zone is thought to be very cold. The fact that the Sun's reflected rays disperse below that zone allows the formation of clouds there. The lower zone (regio infima), being the space from the air surrounding the Earth up to the point where the Sun's rays reflecting on the Earth's surface disperse, is moderately hot. Commentarii Collegii Conimbricensis Societatis Iesu in libros meteororum Aristotelis Stagiritae (Lisbon, 1593), 10\u201311."},{"key":"bibr101-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 324."},{"key":"bibr102-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 259."},{"key":"bibr103-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 309."},{"key":"bibr104-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 310."},{"key":"bibr105-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 326\u201330."},{"key":"bibr106-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Randles, The unmaking of the medieval Christian cosmos (ref. 8), 176."},{"key":"bibr107-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 258."},{"key":"bibr108-002182860803900303","volume-title":"Pena, Euclidis optica et catoptrica","author":"Pena J.","year":"1557"},{"key":"bibr109-002182860803900303","unstructured":"See ref. 76."},{"key":"bibr110-002182860803900303","unstructured":"As Rothman wrote to Tycho on 2 October 1587, \u201cinter Terram, vt scis, et inter Sphaeram Stellarum Fixarum nihil aliud contineri statuo quam A\u00ebrem septem Errantia sidera ambientem\u201d. Brahe Tycho, Epistolae astronomicae, i, ed. by Dreyer (ref. 75), 112."},{"key":"bibr111-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Descriptio accurata cometae anni 1585 was originally sent by Rothmann in manuscript form to Tycho, in 1586, and later published as an appendix to Snell W. Descriptio cometae, qui anno 1618 mense Novembri primum effulsit (Leiden, 1619), 69\u2013155. In the fifth chapter, Rothmann argued that, instead of celestial orbs, the region between the Earth and the fixed stars is filled by air: \u201cnos \u2026 ostendemus, inter sphaeram stellarum fixarum et tellurem nihil aliud esse, quam animalem hunc a\u00ebrem septemque errantia sidera tantum in a\u00ebre pendere.\u201d Rothmann, Descriptio cometae, 102\u20133 (see Rothmann's exposition at pp. 102\u201318). On this treatise of Rothmann, see Granada M., Sfere solide e cielo fluido: Momenti del dibattito cosmologico nella seconda met\u00e0 del Cinquecento (Milan, 2002), 47\u201366. It is most unlikely that Borri had access to the Rothmann's text in manuscript form. Consequently, in the period before the publication of Descriptio cometae, if Borri had direct knowledge of Rothmann's ideas on celestial matter, it could only have been by means of the Brahe\u2014Rothmann correspondence published in Tycho's Epistolae astronomicae. After its publication, it is probable that Borri had access to the Descriptio cometae, as Snell (\u201cSmelius\u201d from Snellius) is mentioned by Borri as one of the \u201cmodern\u201d astronomers defending the celestial location of comets. Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 120."},{"key":"bibr112-002182860803900303","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2709773"},{"key":"bibr113-002182860803900303","unstructured":"See, among other letters, those of Rothmann to Tycho, 2 October 1587; Tycho to Rothmann, 17 August 1588; Rothmann to Tycho, 13 October 1588; Tycho to Rothmann, 21 February 1589; and Rothmann to Tycho, 22 August 1589, respectively at Dreyer (ed.), op. cit. (ref. 75), 110\u201319, 134\u201348, 149\u201361, 166\u201381 and 181\u20134. See also Rothmann, Descriptio cometae (ref. 111), 103\u20137."},{"key":"bibr114-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Dreyer, Tycho Brahe (ref. 52), 180; Thoren, The Lord of Uraniborg (ref. 52), 312."},{"key":"bibr115-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), f. 24v; Borri, Nova astronomia (ref. 37), BGUC, ff. 117r\u2014v, BPE, f. 54v; Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 187\u20138."},{"key":"bibr116-002182860803900303","unstructured":"\u201c\u2026 Como a morte lhe foi occasi\u00e3o de ficar em branco sem provar o que prometeu e deseiava levar ao cabo t\u00e3o insigne astronomo [Tycho]. Nos pello deseyo que tinhamos de ver aclarada e provada huma doutrina t\u00e3o boa nos demos por obrigados provala ainda que breve e recopiladamente por agora.\u201d Borri, Nova astronomia (ref. 37), BGUC, f. 117v, BPE, f. 54v."},{"key":"bibr117-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), ff. 25r, 27r\u2013v."},{"key":"bibr118-002182860803900303","first-page":"469","volume-title":"Planets, stars, and orbs: The medieval cosmos, 1200\u20131687","author":"Grant Edward","year":"1994"},{"key":"bibr119-002182860803900303","unstructured":"And, in fact, Borri occasionally used the expression \u201cpropria forma\u201d to characterize the virtue of planetary motion. See ref. 121. On the Mertonian position, see Weisheipl J. A., Nature and motion in the Middle Ages (Washington, DC, 1985), 166\u20139."},{"key":"bibr120-002182860803900303","unstructured":"\u201cCum et Coelum animatum esse, ipsaque coelestia corpora animantia quaedam Coeli vitali spiritu praedita, non abs re sensisse videatur Divina illa Platonicorum Philosophia.\u201d Brahe Tycho, Avthor Lectori svo de praecentibvs Rothmanni litteris et ad eas responsione, in Brahe Tycho, Epistolae astronomicae, i, ed. Dreyer (ref. 75), 221."},{"key":"bibr121-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Note, however, that in Borri's lecture-notes, the passage reads as follows: \u201cDico totam auram aetheream moveri spatio 24 horarum ab occidente in orientem motu naturali videlicet a propria forma.\u201d Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), f. 27r. This is obviously an inaccuracy of the copyist."},{"key":"bibr122-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), f. 27r."},{"key":"bibr123-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), f. 27v."},{"key":"bibr124-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, De astrologia universa (ref. 21), f. 27r. See also ff. 25v and 27v."},{"key":"bibr125-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Schofield, Tychonic and semi-Tychonic world systems (ref. 1), 100 and 222ff; Granada M. A. \u201cThe defence of the movement of the Earth in Rothmann, Maestlin and Kepler: From heavenly geometry to celestial physics\u201d, in Bucciantini Camerota, Roux (eds), Mechanics and cosmology (ref. 8), 100\u20131."},{"key":"bibr126-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri \/ Della Valle, Compendio (ref. 30), Vat. Pers. 9, 11\u201312."},{"key":"bibr127-002182860803900303","unstructured":"\u201c\u2026 le stelle fanno i moti loro \u00f2 per virt\u00f9 de gli Angioli che a loro diano moto, \u00f2 per altra virt\u00f9 propria data a loro da Dio\u201d, Borri \/ Della Valle, Compendio (ref. 30), Vat. Pers. 9, 22."},{"key":"bibr128-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 175\u201381."},{"key":"bibr129-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 181."},{"key":"bibr130-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 208\u201312. A description of Borri's theory can be found in Schofield, Tychonic and semi-Tychonic world systems (ref. 1), 227\u20139."},{"key":"bibr131-002182860803900303","first-page":"4r","author":"Franc\u00eas Bocarro","year":"2004","journal-title":"Tratado dos cometas"},{"key":"bibr132-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 211\u201312."},{"key":"bibr133-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri devoted a substantial part of Section III to proving this point. Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 189\u2013212. See pp. 223\u20135 for trepidation."},{"key":"bibr134-002182860803900303","volume-title":"Astronomia reformata","author":"Riccioli G. B.","year":"1665"},{"key":"bibr135-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 235\u20136."},{"key":"bibr136-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 172."},{"key":"bibr137-002182860803900303","unstructured":"It is well known that the regulations of the Society of Jesus recommended Jesuits to follow the doctrines of Thomas Aquinas on theological matters. As Ignatius of Loyola put it in the founding Constitutions of the Society of Jesus, \u201cin theology there should be lectures on the Old and New Testaments and on the scholastic doctrine of Saint Thomas\u201d. St Ignatius of Loyola, The constitutions of the Society of Jesus, transl. by Ganss G. E. (St. Louis, 1970), 220."},{"key":"bibr138-002182860803900303","unstructured":"For details on Thomas Aquinas's account, see Summa theologica 1a, q.105, a.5."},{"key":"bibr139-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 172\u20133."},{"key":"bibr140-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 243 and 246."},{"key":"bibr141-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Hence Borri rejected the thesis that because angels were spiritual entities, a single angel was able by itself to move all the celestial bodies. See Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 244\u20135."},{"key":"bibr142-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 173."},{"key":"bibr143-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri's purpose is clear in the front of his book, since the sub-title describes the Collecta astronomica as an \u201copus sane mathematicum, philosophicum et theologicum sive scripturarium\u201d. Randles has considered this work to be \u201cone of the last thorough attempts by a Catholic astronomer to integrate astronomy with the Bible\u201d. Randles, The unmaking of the medieval Christian cosmos (ref. 8), 175\u20136."},{"key":"bibr144-002182860803900303","unstructured":"The crucial observations Borri analysed, in his Collecta astronomica, were Tycho's of Mars, of the 1577 comet and of the 1572 \u2018new star\u2019, together the observations of Galileo and contemporary astronomers of the Moon's surface, sunspots, the satellites of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, Saturn, and comets. Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 73\u2013159."},{"key":"bibr145-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 75."},{"key":"bibr146-002182860803900303","first-page":"145","author":"Eastwood B. S.","year":"1982","journal-title":"Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences"},{"key":"bibr147-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 97\u201398."},{"key":"bibr148-002182860803900303","unstructured":"In fact, Borri gave no details about Kepler's planetary theory."},{"key":"bibr149-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 214."},{"key":"bibr150-002182860803900303","first-page":"375","author":"Russell John L.","year":"1989","journal-title":"Annals of science"},{"key":"bibr151-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 31\u201332 and 42\u201343. Clavius presented these arguments in In sphaeram Ioannis de Sacro Bosco commentarius (Rome, 1606), 222\u20133. On Clavius see Lattis, Between Copernicus and Galileo (ref. 1), 121\u20132. These arguments against the movement of the Earth had already been considered by Aristotle (De caelo, I, 3; II, 13) and Ptolemy (Amagest, I, 7) and discussed in the medieval and Renaissance commentaries on the Sphere. See Sarnowsky J. \u201cThe defence of the Ptolemaic system in late medieval commentaries on Johannes de Sacrobosco's De sphaera\u201c, in Bucciantini Camerota, Roux (eds), Mechanics and cosmology (ref. 8), 29\u201344."},{"key":"bibr152-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 42\u201343. Clavius had already used this argument. Cf. Clavius In sphaeram (ref. 151), 606."},{"key":"bibr153-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Curiously, although familiar with the volume on the Tycho's scientific correspondence, Borri did not examine the arguments presented by Tycho and Rothmann in the course of their discussion over the heliocentric hypothesis. On those arguments, see Granada, \u201cThe defence of the movement\u201d (ref. 125), 99\u2013107."},{"key":"bibr154-002182860803900303","unstructured":"\u201cNon enim ex eo quod corpus aliquod sit tenue, illico sequitur esse corruptioni obnoxium; nam cum propria corruptio sit unius substantiae in aliam conversio, nihil hic tale necessario est.\u201d Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 302. Nonetheless, despite this, in his Collecta astronomica Borri preferred to interpret accidental change (such as the concentration of celestial matter) as a possible way to explain the hypothetical existence of substantial change in the heavens."},{"key":"bibr155-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 326."},{"key":"bibr156-002182860803900303","unstructured":"Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 331\u20133."},{"key":"bibr157-002182860803900303","unstructured":"\u201cConfirmatur hoc idem ex maculis solaribus, quae iuxta Christophorum Scheinerum penetrant ipsum Solem, unde per eundem authorem corpus Solis tenue est et corruptibile.\u201d Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 329. Quite surprisingly, Borri did not give his own account of sunspots. He seems to hesitate between the two positions Christoph Scheiner defended at different times: First, that sunspots were celestial bodies moving around and very close to the Sun (cf. Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 148\u201350 and 164); secondly, that sunspots were indeed maculae on the Sun's surface, so proving its corruptibility (cf. Borri, Collecta astronomica (ref. 19), 148\u201350 and 329). Borri considered, regardless of Galileo, that no one had treated the issue of sunspots better that Scheiner (Galileo's name is mentioned in the Nova astronomia (ref. 37), BGUC, f. 104r). Scheiner defended these two positions respectively in Tres epistolae de maculis solaribus (Augsburg, 1612) and Rosa ursina (ref. 68). On Scheiner's positions on this subject and his dispute with Galileo, see Ingaliso Luigi, Filosofia e cosmologia in Christoph Scheiner (Soveria Mannelli, 2005). See also Dollo Corrado, \u201cTanquam nodi in tabula \u2014 Tanquam pisces in aqua: Le innovazioni della cosmologia nella Rosa Ursina di Christoph Scheiner\u201d, in Baldini U. (ed.), Christoph Clavius e l'attivit\u00e0 scientifica dei gesuiti (ref. 1), 133\u201358."}],"container-title":["Journal for the History of Astronomy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/002182860803900303","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/002182860803900303","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]],"date-time":"2025-03-03T10:37:17Z","timestamp":1740998237000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/002182860803900303"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2008,8]]},"references-count":160,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2008,8]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/002182860803900303"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/002182860803900303","relation":{},"ISSN":["0021-8286","1753-8556"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0021-8286","type":"print"},{"value":"1753-8556","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2008,8]]}}}