{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T19:52:29Z","timestamp":1777578749851,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,15]],"date-time":"2015-12-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1450137600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["European Journal of Communication"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Faced with some fundamental changes in the socio-cultural, political and media environment, political parties in post-industrialized democracies have started to initiate substantial transformations of both their organizational structures and communicative practices. Those innovations, described as professionalization, become most obvious during election campaigns. In recent times, the number of empirical studies measuring the degree of political parties\u2019 campaign professionalism has grown. They have relied on a broad spectrum of indicators derived from theory which have not been tested for their validity. For the first time, we put these indicators to a \u2018reality check\u2019 by asking top-ranked party secretaries and campaign managers in 12 European countries to offer their perceptions of professional election campaigning. Furthermore, we investigate whether any differences in understanding professionalism among party campaign practitioners can be explained by macro (country) and meso (party) factors. By and large, our results confirm the validity of most indicators applied in empirical studies on campaign professionalism so far. There are some party- and country-related differences in assessing campaign professionalism too, but the influence of most factors on practitioners\u2019 evaluations is weak. Therefore, we conclude that largely there is a far-reaching European Union-wide common understanding of professional election campaigning.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/0267323115612212","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,15]],"date-time":"2015-12-15T20:12:16Z","timestamp":1450210336000},"page":"95-119","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["The professionals speak: Practitioners\u2019 perspectives on professional election campaigning"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"31","author":[{"given":"Jens","family":"Tenscher","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Trier, Germany"}]},{"given":"Karolina","family":"Koc-Michalska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Audencia School of Management &amp; CEVIPOF SciencesPo Paris, France"}]},{"given":"Darren G","family":"Lilleker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bournemouth University, UK"}]},{"given":"Juri","family":"Mykk\u00e4nen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Helsinki, Finland"}]},{"given":"Annemarie S","family":"Walter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Nottingham, UK"}]},{"given":"Andrej","family":"Findor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia"}]},{"given":"Carlos","family":"Jalali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Aveiro, Portugal"}]},{"given":"Jol\u00e1n","family":"R\u00f3ka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Budapest Metropolitan University of Applied Sciences., Hungary"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_5_2_1","first-page":"3","article-title":"Professionalism in politics","author":"Abrams M","year":"1962","unstructured":"Abrams M (1962) Professionalism in politics. Socialist Commentary April: 3\u20135.","journal-title":"Socialist Commentary"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5040\/9798400698873.ch-004"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/13522750110364541"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_5_1","unstructured":"Bicchi F Jean B Palle S (2003) The European parliament campaign. Working paper European University Institute Florence."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_6_1","first-page":"380","volume-title":"Mediated Politics: Communication in the Future of Democracy","author":"Blumler JG","year":"2001","unstructured":"Blumler JG, Gurevitch M (2001) Americanization reconsidered: UK\u2013US campaign communication comparisons across time. In: Bennett L, Entman R (eds) Mediated Politics: Communication in the Future of Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 380\u2013404."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/105846099198596"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198273752.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/019924488X.001.0001"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_5_10_1","first-page":"373","article-title":"Academic modelling of the codecision procedure: A practitioner\u2019s puzzled reaction","volume":"1","author":"Corbett R","year":"2000","unstructured":"Corbett R (2000) Academic modelling of the codecision procedure: A practitioner\u2019s puzzled reaction. European Union Politics 1(3): 373\u2013381.","journal-title":"European Union Politics"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_11_1","first-page":"289","volume-title":"The Handbook of Comparative Communication Research","author":"Esser F","year":"2012","unstructured":"Esser F, Str\u00f6mb\u00e4ck J (2012) Comparing election campaign communication. In: Esser F, Hanitzsch T (eds) The Handbook of Comparative Communication Research. New York: Routledge, pp. 289\u2013307."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_12_1","first-page":"160","volume-title":"Comparing Democracies: Elections and Voting in Global Perspective","author":"Farrell DM","year":"1996","unstructured":"Farrell DM (1996) Campaign strategies and tactics. In: LeDuc L, Niemi RG, Norris P (eds) Comparing Democracies: Elections and Voting in Global Perspective. London: SAGE, pp. 160\u2013183."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780199253227.003.0004"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_14_1","first-page":"102","volume-title":"Parties without Partisans","author":"Farrell DM","year":"2000","unstructured":"Farrell DM, Webb P (2000) Political parties as campaign organizations. In: Dalton RJ, Wattenberg MP (eds) Parties without Partisans. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 102\u2013125."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/108118001129172323"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1354068809102245"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511790867"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/0199245118.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctv36xvvhr.7"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001041402236310"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/13527599910263116"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_22_1","volume-title":"Election Campaigning: The New Marketing of Politics","author":"Kavanagh D","year":"1995","unstructured":"Kavanagh D (1995) Election Campaigning: The New Marketing of Politics. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9248.00337"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13569775.2012.702976"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_25_1","volume-title":"Political Marketing: A Comparative Perspective","author":"Lilleker DG","year":"2005","unstructured":"Lilleker DG, Lees-Marshment J (eds) (2005) Political Marketing: A Comparative Perspective. Manchester: Manchester University Press."},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_3_5_26_1","first-page":"98","article-title":"Professionalization: Of what? Since when? By whom?","volume":"7","author":"Lilleker DG","year":"2002","unstructured":"Lilleker DG, Negrine R (2002) Professionalization: Of what? Since when? By whom? The Harvard International Journal of Press\/Politics 7(4): 98\u2013103.","journal-title":"The Harvard International Journal of Press\/Politics"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0267323111416182"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0267323113475463"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1354068807073852"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_30_1","first-page":"45","volume-title":"European Political Communication: Campaign Strategies, Media Coverage, and Campaign Effects in European Parliamentary Elections","author":"Moring T","year":"2011","unstructured":"Moring T, Mykk\u00e4nen J, Nord L, . (2011) Campaign professionalization and political structures: A comparative study of election campaigning in Finland and Sweden in the 2009 EP Elections. In: Maier M, Str\u00f6mb\u00e4ck J, Kaid LL (eds) European Political Communication: Campaign Strategies, Media Coverage, and Campaign Effects in European Parliamentary Elections. Farnham: Ashgate, pp. 45\u201360."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-137-02139-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0267323102017003688"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1081180X96001002005"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_34_1","volume-title":"The Professionalization of Political Communication","author":"Negrine R","year":"2007","unstructured":"Negrine R, Mancini P, Holtz-Bacha C, . (eds) (2007) The Professionalization of Political Communication. Bristol and Chicago, IL: Intellect."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1081180X05284040"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Norris P (2000) A virtuous circle: Political communications in postindustrial societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511609343"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctv36xvvhr.4"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_38_1","volume-title":"Political Communication Culture in Western Europe: Attitudes of Political Actors and Journalists in Nine Countries","author":"Pfetsch B","year":"2014","unstructured":"Pfetsch B (ed.) (2014) Political Communication Culture in Western Europe: Attitudes of Political Actors and Journalists in Nine Countries. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1081180X00005004003"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_40_1","volume-title":"Global Political Campaigning: A Worldwide Analysis of Campaign Professionals and Their Practices","author":"Plasser F","year":"2002","unstructured":"Plasser F, Plasser G (2002) Global Political Campaigning: A Worldwide Analysis of Campaign Professionals and Their Practices. Westport, CT and London: Praeger."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_41_1","first-page":"89","volume-title":"Handbook of Political Marketing","author":"Plasser F","year":"1999","unstructured":"Plasser F, Christian S, Christian S (1999) Is there a European style of political marketing? A survey of political managers and consultants. In: Newman BE (ed.) Handbook of Political Marketing. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, pp. 89\u2013112."},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_5_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1080\/00218499.1989.12467683","article-title":"Comparative advertising effectiveness: Practitioners\u2019 perceptions versus academic research findings","volume":"29","author":"Rogers JC","year":"1989","unstructured":"Rogers JC, Williams TG (1989) Comparative advertising effectiveness: Practitioners\u2019 perceptions versus academic research findings. Journal of Advertising Research 29(3): 22\u201336.","journal-title":"Journal of Advertising Research"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-349-23942-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9248.2008.00727.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5040\/9798400698873"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_46_1","first-page":"65","volume-title":"The German National Elections in 2005: Analyses of the election campaigns and election results","author":"Tenscher J","year":"2007","unstructured":"Tenscher J (2007) Professionalization across elections. A comparison of political parties\u2019 campaigns in the latest National and European election campaigns in Germany. In: Brettschneider F, Niedermayer O, We\u00dfels B (eds) The German National Elections in 2005: Analyses of the election campaigns and election results. Wiesbaden: Springer VS, pp. 65\u201395."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_47_1","first-page":"412","volume-title":"A comparison of EU countries: Structures, processes, and political issues","author":"Tenscher J","year":"2008","unstructured":"Tenscher J (2008) Mass media and political communication in EU countries. In: Gabriel OW, Kropp S (eds) A comparison of EU countries: Structures, processes, and political issues. Wiesbaden: Springer VS, pp. 412\u2013447."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0267323113477633"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_3_5_49_1","first-page":"171","article-title":"Transformations in second-order campaigning: A German-Finnish comparison of campaign professionalism in the European parliamentary elections 2004 and 2009","volume":"6","author":"Tenscher J","year":"2013","unstructured":"Tenscher J, Mykk\u00e4nen J (2013) Transformations in second-order campaigning: A German-Finnish comparison of campaign professionalism in the European parliamentary elections 2004 and 2009. Central European Journal of Communication 6(2): 171\u2013187.","journal-title":"Central European Journal of Communication"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9248.12104"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1940161211433839"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_5_52_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Americanisation of political communication","volume":"8","author":"U\u011fur G","year":"2012","unstructured":"U\u011fur G (2012) Americanisation of political communication. Canadian Social Science 8(3): 1\u20137.","journal-title":"Canadian Social Science"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_53_1","volume-title":"Making a Difference: A Comparative View of the Role of the Internet in Election Politics","author":"Ward S","year":"2008","unstructured":"Ward S, Owen D, Davis R, . (eds) (2008) Making a Difference: A Comparative View of the Role of the Internet in Election Politics. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0002764211398086"}],"container-title":["European Journal of Communication"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0267323115612212","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/0267323115612212","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0267323115612212","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T19:35:27Z","timestamp":1777404927000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/0267323115612212"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,15]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,4]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/0267323115612212"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0267323115612212","relation":{},"ISSN":["0267-3231","1460-3705"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0267-3231","type":"print"},{"value":"1460-3705","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,15]]}}}