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Patients experience a progressive deterioration up to end-stage COPD, characterised by very severe airflow limitation, severely limited and declining performance status with chronic respiratory failure, advanced age, multiple comorbidities and severe systemic manifestations\/complications.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    COPD is frequently underdiagnosed and under-treated. Today, COPD develops earlier in life and is less gender specific. Tobacco smoking is the major risk factor for COPD, followed by occupation and air pollution. Severe deficiency for \u03b1\n                    <jats:sub>1<\/jats:sub>\n                    -antitrypsin is rare; several phenotypes are being associated with elevated risk for COPD in the presence of risk factor exposure. Any patient presenting with cough, sputum production or dyspnoea should be assessed by standardised spirometry. Continued exposure to noxious agents promotes a more rapid decline in lung function and increases the risk for repeated exacerbations, eventually leading to end-stage disease.\n                  <\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Without major efforts in prevention, there will be an increasing proportion of end-stage patients who can live longer through long-term oxygen therapy and assisted ventilation, but with elevated suffering and huge costs. 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