{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T20:39:34Z","timestamp":1793133574777,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":169,"publisher":"European Respiratory Society (ERS)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,28]],"date-time":"2021-10-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1635379200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.ersjournals.com\/user-licence"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["publications.ersnet.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Eur Respir J"],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,15]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>In the pathogenesis of asthma in children there is a pivotal role for a type 2 inflammatory response to early life exposures or events. Interactions between infections, atopy, genetic susceptibility and environmental exposures (such as farmyard environment, air pollution and tobacco smoke exposure) influence the development of wheezing illness and the risk of progression to asthma. The immune system, lung function and the microbiome in gut and airways develop in parallel, and dysbiosis of the microbiome may be a critical factor in asthma development. Increased infant weight gain and preterm birth are other risk factors for development of asthma and reduced lung function. The complex interplay between these factors explains the heterogeneity of asthma in children. Subgroups of patients can be identified as phenotypes, based on clinical parameters, or endotypes, based on a specific pathophysiological mechanism. Paediatric asthma phenotypes and endotypes may ultimately help to improve diagnosis of asthma, prediction of asthma development and treatment of individual children, based on clinical, temporal, developmental or inflammatory characteristics. Unbiased, data-driven clustering, using a multidimensional or systems biology approach may be needed to better define phenotypes. The present knowledge on inflammatory phenotypes of childhood asthma has now been successfully applied in the treatment with biologicals of children with severe therapy-resistant asthma, and it is to be expected that more personalised treatment options may become available.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00731-2021","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,28]],"date-time":"2021-10-28T11:15:41Z","timestamp":1635419741000},"page":"2100731","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1183\/ers-crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":95,"title":["Childhood asthma: pathogenesis and phenotypes"],"prefix":"10.1183","volume":"59","author":[{"given":"Mari\u00eblle W.","family":"Pijnenburg","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Urs","family":"Frey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Johan C.","family":"De Jongste","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sejal","family":"Saglani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"81","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)30879-6"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1007\/s12016-018-8712-1","article-title":"Understanding asthma phenotypes, endotypes, and mechanisms of disease","volume":"56","author":"Kuruvilla","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin Rev Allergy Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1032","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(20)30399-4","article-title":"Advances in understanding and reducing the burden of severe asthma in children","volume":"8","author":"Pijnenburg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00780-2015"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2013.09.039"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2014.02.006"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.01740-2016"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201408-1440OC"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2016-209919"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00014-2017"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.07.025","article-title":"Viral infections in allergy and immunology: how allergic inflammation influences viral infections and illness","volume":"140","author":"Edwards","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.95.4.500","article-title":"Asthma and immunoglobulin E antibodies after respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis: a prospective cohort study with matched controls","volume":"95","author":"Sigurs","year":"1995","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.2009.121582"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(18)30055-9","article-title":"Respiratory syncytial virus prevention and asthma in healthy preterm infants: a randomised controlled trial","volume":"6","author":"Scheltema","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.08.003"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201104-0660OC"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.3390\/v10120682","article-title":"Small animal models of respiratory viral infection related to asthma","volume":"10","author":"Han","year":"2018","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2014.04.020"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201747052","article-title":"Respiratory viral infections and atopic development: from possible mechanisms to advances in treatment","volume":"48","author":"Martorano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur J Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2020.03.039","article-title":"Early-life heterologous rhinovirus infections induce an exaggerated asthma-like phenotype","volume":"146","author":"Rajput","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1211592"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2388","DOI":"10.1111\/all.13568","article-title":"Protective effects of breastfeeding on respiratory symptoms in infants with 17q21 asthma risk variants","volume":"73","author":"Gorlanova","year":"2018","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2020.01.007","article-title":"The role of lung and gut microbiota in the pathology of asthma","volume":"52","author":"Barcik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2016.05.050"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2010.10.048"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0008578"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1111\/all.13002","article-title":"Environmental and mucosal microbiota and their role in childhood asthma","volume":"72","author":"Birzele","year":"2017","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-019-00775-y","article-title":"Dysbiosis of the gut and lung microbiome has a role in asthma","volume":"42","author":"Hufnagl","year":"2020","journal-title":"Semin Immunopathol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.3568"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.aan4128"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201407-1240OC"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2015.03.008"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aab2271"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1402","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2019.07.035","article-title":"Indoor bacterial microbiota and development of asthma by 10.5\u2005years of age","volume":"144","author":"Karvonen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coi.2017.08.003","article-title":"Immune development and environment: lessons from Amish and Hutterite children","volume":"48","author":"Ober","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr Opin Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ina.12072"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1111\/cea.12401","article-title":"Asthma and allergy development: contrasting influences of yeasts and other fungal exposures","volume":"45","author":"Behbod","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin Exp Allergy"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2016.142"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1111\/all.13660","article-title":"High levels of butyrate and propionate in early life are associated with protection against atopy","volume":"74","author":"Roduit","year":"2019","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.02021-2019"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1097\/ACI.0000000000000433","article-title":"Nonspecific immunomodulators for recurrent respiratory tract infections, wheezing and asthma in children: a systematic review of mechanistic and clinical evidence","volume":"18","author":"Esposito","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1065","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16061065","article-title":"Impact of OM-85 given during two consecutive years to children with a history of recurrent respiratory tract infections: a retrospective study","volume":"16","author":"Esposito","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202003-0520OC","article-title":"Bacterial mucosal immunotherapy with MV130 prevents recurrent wheezing in children: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"204","author":"Nieto","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1609","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqaa442","article-title":"Breastfeeding and wheeze-related outcomes in high-risk infants: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"113","author":"Harvey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwu072"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/apa.13132"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqy283"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1159\/000457920","article-title":"Breastfeeding, childhood asthma, and allergic disease","volume":"70","author":"Oddy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann Nutr Metab"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2019-0281"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1080\/14767058.2019.1611771","article-title":"Maternal vitamin D intake during pregnancy and risk of asthma and wheeze in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies","volume":"34","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1508","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2016.06.065","article-title":"In utero exposure to 25-hydroxyvitamin D and risk of childhood asthma, wheeze, and respiratory tract infections: a meta-analysis of birth cohort studies","volume":"139","author":"Feng","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.13303","article-title":"Dietary factors during pregnancy and atopic outcomes in childhood: a systematic review from the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology","volume":"31","author":"Venter","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatr Allergy Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0186657"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.12876","article-title":"Prenatal vitamin D status and respiratory and allergic outcomes in childhood: a meta-analysis of observational studies","volume":"29","author":"Pacheco-Gonz\u00e1lez","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr Allergy Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100486","DOI":"10.1016\/j.waojou.2020.100486","article-title":"Prenatal vitamin D supplementation and child respiratory health: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"13","author":"Tareke","year":"2020","journal-title":"World Allergy Organ J"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1186\/s12890-018-0679-4","article-title":"Early life vitamin D status and asthma and wheeze: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"18","author":"Shen","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Pulm Med"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.12593","article-title":"Maternal vitamin D status and childhood asthma, wheeze, and eczema: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"27","author":"Wei","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatr Allergy Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1266","DOI":"10.1080\/02770903.2018.1536142","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy and the risk of wheezing in offspring: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis","volume":"56","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Asthma"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.02012-2020"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqy016","article-title":"Vitamin A and D intake in pregnancy, infant supplementation, and asthma development: the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort","volume":"107","author":"Parr","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1792","DOI":"10.1080\/14767058.2018.1529161","article-title":"Effects of supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids during pregnancy on asthma or wheeze of children: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"33","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1080\/02770903.2019.1709866","article-title":"Effect of omega-3 fatty acids supplementation during childhood in preventing allergic disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"58","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Asthma"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2014-205413"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2018.12.019"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00084008"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3016.2010.01136.x"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2019.03.024","article-title":"Fine particulate matter exposure during pregnancy and infancy and incident asthma","volume":"143","author":"Jung","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1414123"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e28","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(18)30202-0","article-title":"Impact of London's low emission zone on air quality and children's respiratory health: a sequential annual cross-sectional study","volume":"4","author":"Mudway","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cea.12200"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.09.002","article-title":"Pre-pregnancy exposure to diesel exhaust predisposes offspring to asthma through IL-1\u03b2 and IL-17A","volume":"141","author":"Lenberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2013.10.047"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1165\/rcmb.2007-0124OC"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.2007.086801"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2018.02.004"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.76","first-page":"10","article-title":"Weight loss in obese children with asthma \u2013 is it important?","volume":"37","author":"McLoughlin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Paediatr Respir Rev"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12532","DOI":"10.1111\/ijpo.12532","article-title":"Association between overweight or obesity and the risk for childhood asthma and wheeze: an updated meta-analysis on 18 articles and 73 252 children","volume":"14","author":"Deng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr Obes"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.25197","article-title":"Life course body mass index through childhood and young adulthood and risks of asthma and pulmonary function impairment","volume":"56","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pediatr Pulmonol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001669"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2015.08.050"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1197","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.201712-921OC","article-title":"Early life weight gain and development of childhood asthma in a prospective birth cohort","volume":"15","author":"Tsai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann Am Thorac Soc"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.09.043"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2012-203079"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Decrue F , Gorlanova O , Salem Y , et al. Increased impact of air pollution on lung function in preterm vs. term infants: the BILD study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2022; 205: 99\u2013107. doi: 10.1164\/rccm.202102-0272OC.","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202102-0272OC"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.23942","article-title":"Asthma and atopic dermatitis after early-, late-, and post-term birth","volume":"53","author":"Korhonen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr Pulmonol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1080\/02770903.2016.1249284","article-title":"Preterm birth and low birth weight continue to increase the risk of asthma from age 7 to 43","volume":"54","author":"Matheson","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Asthma"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0000000000002432","article-title":"Severe respiratory syncytial virus infection in preterm infants and later onset of asthma","volume":"38","author":"Jalink","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr Infect Dis J"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.2147\/JAA.S258447","article-title":"Impact of prematurity and severe viral bronchiolitis on asthma development at 6\u20139 years","volume":"13","author":"Garcia-Garcia","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Asthma Allergy"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.89","first-page":"87","article-title":"Persistent and progressive long-term lung disease in survivors of preterm birth","volume":"28","author":"Urs","year":"2018","journal-title":"Paediatr Respir Rev"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00071110"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2018.08.042"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-4642(18)30064-6","article-title":"Lung function trajectories throughout childhood in survivors of very preterm birth: a longitudinal cohort study","volume":"2","author":"Simpson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Child Adolesc Health"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2017-211115"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.24270","article-title":"Fractional exhaled nitric oxide in preterm-born subjects: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"54","author":"Course","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr Pulmonol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00185511"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2012.06.007","article-title":"Inflammatory markers in induced sputum of school children born before 32 completed weeks of gestation","volume":"161","author":"Teig","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Pediatr"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.2678"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(08)61452-X"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.99","first-page":"395","article-title":"Clinical management of severe therapy-resistant asthma","volume":"11","author":"Chung","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Rev Respir Med"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199501193320301"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2011.02.002"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2013.08.002"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201307-1198OC","article-title":"Clinical and epidemiologic phenotypes of childhood asthma","volume":"189","author":"Depner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00284-2015"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200504-525OC"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2011.03.001"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.162.4.9912111"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2013.07.007"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.312.7040.1195"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.2003.016246"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.201806-374OC","article-title":"Childhood respiratory risk factor profiles and middle-age lung function: a prospective cohort study from the first to sixth decade","volume":"15","author":"Bui","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann Am Thorac Soc"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.164.11.2006165"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-020-00784-2","article-title":"Lung functional development and asthma trajectories","volume":"42","author":"Decrue","year":"2020","journal-title":"Semin Immunopathol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200907-1101OC"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1111\/all.12134","article-title":"Multiple atopy phenotypes and their associations with asthma: similar findings from two birth cohorts","volume":"68","author":"Lazic","year":"2013","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1935","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2016.08.046","article-title":"Latent class analysis reveals clinically relevant atopy phenotypes in 2 birth cohorts","volume":"139","author":"Hose","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.01.041","article-title":"Sensitization trajectories in childhood revealed by using a cluster analysis","volume":"140","author":"Schoos","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cea.12050"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1097\/ACI.0000000000000430","article-title":"Development of allergic sensitization and its relevance to paediatric asthma","volume":"18","author":"Oksel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1097\/ACI.0000000000000517","article-title":"Precision medicine in childhood asthma","volume":"19","author":"Slob","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.121","unstructured":"Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) . Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. 2020. https:\/\/ginasthma.org\/"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2006.07.053"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00588-2019"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2010.11.015"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.03.002","article-title":"Omalizumab in children with uncontrolled allergic asthma: review of clinical trial and real-world experience","volume":"139","author":"Chipps","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/23120541.00037-2018"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1398-9995.2011.02734.x"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/23120541.00007-2019"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.2010.156489"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2011.01.018"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04176"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240182","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/240182","article-title":"An intelligent system approach for asthma prediction in symptomatic preschool children","volume":"2013","author":"Chatzimichail","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput Math Methods Med"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.9120-11ST"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2011.03.010"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202009-3696OC","article-title":"Recurrent severe preschool wheeze: from pre-specified diagnostic labels to underlying endotypes","volume":"204","author":"Robinson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaip.2017.02.003","article-title":"Neutrophilic steroid-refractory recurrent wheeze and eosinophilic steroid-refractory asthma in children","volume":"5","author":"Guiddir","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2016.09.028","article-title":"Individualized therapy for persistent asthma in young children","volume":"138","author":"Fitzpatrick","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0027913"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1754","DOI":"10.1111\/all.14651","article-title":"Airway immune mediator levels during asthma-like symptoms in young children and their possible role in response to azithromycin","volume":"76","author":"Carlsson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(15)00500-7","article-title":"Azithromycin for episodes with asthma-like symptoms in young children aged 1\u20133 years: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"4","author":"Stokholm","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0182411","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0182411","article-title":"Treatment of preschool children presenting to the emergency department with wheeze with azithromycin: a placebo-controlled randomized trial","volume":"12","author":"Mandhane","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.142","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2015.13896"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.143","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.12359"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1097\/ACI.0000000000000726","article-title":"Application of exhaled nitric oxide (","volume":"21","author":"Di Cicco","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.145","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.01809-2018"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.146","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00209511"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.147","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2012.01.059"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.148","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2013.04.012"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2048","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2017.08.020","article-title":"TH1 signatures are present in the lower airways of children with severe asthma, regardless of allergic status","volume":"141","author":"Wisniewski","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1208","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.24075","article-title":"Can inflammatory markers in induced sputum be used to detect phenotypes and endotypes of pediatric severe therapy-resistant asthma?","volume":"53","author":"Eller","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr Pulmonol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1803","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaip.2018.12.027","article-title":"Lung lavage granulocyte patterns and clinical phenotypes in children with severe, therapy-resistant asthma","volume":"7","author":"Teague","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1200","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.23165","article-title":"Heterogeneity of lower airway inflammation in children with severe-persistent asthma","volume":"50","author":"O'Brien","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatr Pulmonol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2020.05.039","article-title":"Bronchoalveolar lavage cytokine patterns in children with severe neutrophilic and paucigranulocytic asthma","volume":"147","author":"Steinke","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaip.2019.11.006","article-title":"T2-\u2018low\u2019 asthma: overview and management strategies","volume":"8","author":"Fitzpatrick","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.155","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2015.01.016"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.156","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/ACI.0000000000000045"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.157","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00002108"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1439","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.24411","article-title":"Episodic viral wheeze and multiple-trigger wheeze in preschool children are neither distinct nor constant patterns. A prospective multicenter cohort study in secondary care","volume":"54","author":"Raaymakers","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr Pulmonol"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.2009.01508.x","article-title":"The transient value of classifying preschool wheeze into episodic viral wheeze and multiple trigger wheeze","volume":"99","author":"Schultz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.160","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2011-201064"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.161","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)11679-5"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.162","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.2010.156836"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2018.10.009","article-title":"Change in FEV1 and F ENO measurements as predictors of future asthma outcomes in children","volume":"155","author":"Fielding","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.164","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2018-211540"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.165","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2016-208704"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.166","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00088814"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaip.2021.02.007","article-title":"Characterization of asthma trajectories from infancy to young adulthood","volume":"9","author":"\u00d6dling","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1364","DOI":"10.1111\/all.13745","article-title":"A strategy for high-dimensional multivariable analysis classifies childhood asthma phenotypes from genetic, immunological, and environmental factors","volume":"74","author":"Krautenbacher","year":"2019","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"2024102102433184000_59.6.2100731.169","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)60082-9"}],"container-title":["European Respiratory Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/syndication.highwire.org\/content\/doi\/10.1183\/13993003.00731-2021","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,24]],"date-time":"2025-02-24T00:48:42Z","timestamp":1740358122000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/publications.ersnet.org\/lookup\/doi\/10.1183\/13993003.00731-2021"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,28]]},"references-count":169,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,9]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,6]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1183\/13993003.00731-2021"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1183\/13993003.00731-2021","relation":{"has-review":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.3410\/f.741076906.793595666","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["0903-1936","1399-3003"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0903-1936","type":"print"},{"value":"1399-3003","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,28]]}}}