{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T08:22:09Z","timestamp":1793348529710,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":149,"publisher":"European Respiratory Society (ERS)","issue":"162","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,8]],"date-time":"2021-11-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1636329600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["publications.ersnet.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Eur Respir Rev"],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,26]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Effective restoration of extensive tracheal damage arising from cancer, stenosis, infection or congenital abnormalities remains an unmet clinical need in respiratory medicine. The trachea is a 10\u201311\u2005cm long fibrocartilaginous tube of the lower respiratory tract, with 16\u201320 tracheal cartilages anterolaterally and a dynamic trachealis muscle posteriorly. Tracheal resection is commonly offered to patients suffering from short-length tracheal defects, but replacement is required when the trauma exceeds 50% of total length of the trachea in adults and 30% in children. Recently, tissue engineering (TE) has shown promise to fabricate biocompatible tissue-engineered tracheal implants for tracheal replacement and regeneration. However, its widespread use is hampered by inadequate re-epithelialisation, poor mechanical properties, insufficient revascularisation and unsatisfactory durability, leading to little success in the clinical use of tissue-engineered tracheal implants to date. Here, we describe in detail the historical attempts and the lessons learned for tracheal TE approaches by contextualising the clinical needs and essential requirements for a functional tracheal graft. TE manufacturing approaches explored to date and the clinical translation of both TE and non-TE strategies for tracheal regeneration are summarised to fully understand the big picture of tracheal TE and its impact on clinical treatment of extensive tracheal defects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1183\/16000617.0154-2021","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,8]],"date-time":"2021-11-08T10:20:19Z","timestamp":1636366819000},"page":"210154","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1183\/ers-crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":68,"title":["Development and clinical translation of tubular constructs for tracheal tissue engineering: a 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