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This treatment has been available and remained basically unchanged for more than 35\u2005years, but many questions persist regarding its indications, regimen of administration and efficacy. Because AATD is a rare disease, it has not been possible to conduct randomised, placebo-controlled trials that are adequately powered for the usual outcomes analysed in non-AATD-related COPD, such as lung function decline, exacerbations, symptoms or quality of life. New outcomes such as lung densitometry measured by computed tomography are more sensitive for identifying emphysema progression but are not widely accepted by regulatory agencies. In addition, clinical manifestations, severity and the natural history of lung disease associated with AATD are very heterogeneous, which means that individual prediction of prognosis is challenging. Therefore, the indication for augmentation is sometimes a dilemma between initiating treatment in individuals who may not develop significant lung disease or in whom disease will not progress and delaying it in patients who will otherwise rapidly and irreversibly progress.<\/jats:p><jats:p>Other areas of debate are the possible indication for augmentation in patients with severe AATD and respiratory diseases other than emphysema, such as bronchiectasis or asthma, and the use of therapy after lung transplant in AATD patients. All these uncertainties imply that the indication for treatment must be personalised in expert reference centres after in-depth discussion of the pros and cons of augmentation with the patient.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1183\/16000617.0170-2023","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,6]],"date-time":"2023-12-06T09:45:17Z","timestamp":1701855917000},"page":"230170","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1183\/ers-crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Nine controversial questions about augmentation therapy for alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency: a viewpoint"],"prefix":"10.1183","volume":"32","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9850-9520","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marc","family":"Miravitlles","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Anzueto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miriam","family":"Barrecheguren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"81","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"2024102404170605000_32.170.230170.1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15326\/jcopdf.3.3.2015.0182"},{"key":"2024102404170605000_32.170.230170.2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/COPD.S125389"},{"key":"2024102404170605000_32.170.230170.3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/16000617.0014-2020"},{"key":"2024102404170605000_32.170.230170.4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arbres.2023.03.016","article-title":"Estimated worldwide prevalence of the PI*ZZ alpha-1 antitrypsin genotype in subjects with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"59","author":"Blanco","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arch Bronconeumol"},{"key":"2024102404170605000_32.170.230170.5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/00365516309051324"},{"key":"2024102404170605000_32.170.230170.6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198704233161704"},{"key":"2024102404170605000_32.170.230170.7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.2006.075846"},{"key":"2024102404170605000_32.170.230170.8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.2147\/COPD.S346051","article-title":"Opinions and attitudes of pulmonologists about augmentation therapy in patients with alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency. 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