{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,10]],"date-time":"2026-11-10T23:41:22Z","timestamp":1794354082500,"version":"4.9.0"},"reference-count":124,"publisher":"European Respiratory Society (ERS)","issue":"179","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767225600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["publications.ersnet.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Eur Respir Rev"],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,15]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The global rise in the older population poses novel challenges in healthcare systems. Ageing is associated with immunosenescence, a progressive decline and remodelling of the immune system, and with inflammageing, a chronic, low-grade inflammatory process. Both states are associated with increased susceptibility to infections and adverse outcomes, especially in the context of infections. In this review, we examine the molecular and cellular pathophysiological mechanisms of immunosenescence and inflammageing that predispose older adults to increased morbidity and mortality from respiratory viral infections. We also outline the clinical implications of the ageing immune system, along with the most up-to-date evidence on possible biomarkers, preventative measures and treatment options aimed at mitigating the effects of immunosenescence on the vulnerability of older adults in respiratory viral infections.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1183\/16000617.0248-2025","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T09:25:20Z","timestamp":1773221120000},"page":"250248","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1183\/ers-crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Immunosenescence and susceptibility to respiratory viruses: a state-of-the-art review"],"prefix":"10.1183","volume":"35","author":[{"given":"Paraskevi C.","family":"Fragkou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chrysanthi","family":"Skevaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charalampos D.","family":"Moschopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"\u015eiran","family":"Keske","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hannah","family":"Wozniak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Astrid","family":"Mal\u00e9zieux-Picard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Virginie","family":"Prendki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0676-6210","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jordi","family":"Rello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"81","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO) . Ageing and Health. Geneva, WHO, 2025. www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/ageing-and-health Date last accessed: 11 July 2025."},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01451-2","article-title":"Immunosenescence: molecular mechanisms and diseases","volume":"8","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Signal Transduct Target Ther"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.3","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) . Respiratory Viruses and Older Adults. Atlanta, GA, CDC, 2024. www.cdc.gov\/respiratory-viruses\/risk-factors\/older-adults.html Date last accessed: 11 July 2025."},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S19","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaf266","article-title":"Respiratory syncytial virus and human metapneumovirus respiratory hospitalizations and outcomes in Colorado Adults \u226550 years of age: 2016\u20132023","volume":"232","author":"Sim\u00f5es","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.5","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) . People with Certain Medical Conditions and COVID-19 Risk Factors. Atlanta, GA, CDC, 2025. www.cdc.gov\/covid\/risk-factors\/index.html?utm Date last accessed: 7 December 2025."},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s1473-3099(23)00684-9"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/qco.0000000000001000"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2025.106570","article-title":"Burden of respiratory syncytial virus infection in older adults hospitalised in England during 2023\/24","volume":"91","author":"Symes","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Infect"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2022.01.050","article-title":"Challenges in respiratory syncytial virus in adults with severe community-acquired pneumonia","volume":"161","author":"Rello","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100679","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanhl.2024.100679","article-title":"The global burden of human metapneumovirus-associated acute respiratory infections in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"6","author":"Kulkarni","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Healthy Longev"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1186\/s13613-019-0559-y","article-title":"Human metapneumovirus as cause of severe community-acquired pneumonia in adults: insights from a ten-year molecular and epidemiological analysis","volume":"9","author":"Vidaur","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann Intensive Care"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1186\/s12979-025-00521-z","article-title":"The aging immune system and all-cause mortality in older Americans: differences across sex and race\/ethnicity","volume":"22","author":"Duchowny","year":"2025","journal-title":"Immun Ageing"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1525948","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1525948","article-title":"Sexual dimorphism in immunity and longevity among the oldest old","volume":"16","author":"Arakelyan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03547-7"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55409","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2013.00316","article-title":"The effect of age on thymic function","volume":"4","author":"Palmer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-019-0180-1"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coi.2014.05.008"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2020.03.017"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201546178"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tem.2016.09.005"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41569-018-0064-2"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2174\/138161213805219711"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.0060301"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01502-8","article-title":"Inflammation and aging: signaling pathways and intervention therapies","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Signal Transduct Target Ther"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2013.09.010"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2017.05.015"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100033","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tjfa.2025.100033","article-title":"A systematic review of assessment tools for cognitive frailty: use, psychometric properties, and clinical utility","volume":"14","author":"Dobie","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Frailty Aging"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/J.JIM.2018.08.005"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2021.03.005"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-08831-9"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12931-022-01961-7"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818700","DOI":"10.3389\/fragi.2022.818700","article-title":"The impact of aging on the lung alveolar environment, predetermining susceptibility to respiratory infections","volume":"3","author":"Torrelles","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Aging"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI170501"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI140299"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1183\/16000617.0263-2023"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2023.107197","article-title":"Single cell RNA sequencing unravels mechanisms underlying senescence-like phenotypes of alveolar macrophages","volume":"26","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2024.114073"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1700397"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2025.115531","article-title":"Alveolar macrophages critically control infection by seasonal human coronavirus OC43 to avoid severe pneumonia","volume":"44","author":"Zhong","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Rep"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10030708"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-025-02234-3"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20240365"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20220514","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20220514","article-title":"Autoantibodies against type I IFNs in patients with critical influenza pneumonia","volume":"219","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Exp Med"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abd4585"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.13304"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-52522-z"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.583019"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2017.09.015","article-title":"Influenza vaccine-mediated protection in older adults: impact of influenza infection, cytomegalovirus serostatus and vaccine dosage","volume":"107","author":"Merani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp Gerontol"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.180.8.5283"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-017-0006-x"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2022.03.010","article-title":"Host immune responses and possible therapeutic targets for viral respiratory tract infections in susceptible populations: a narrative review","volume":"28","author":"Fragkou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Infect"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41580-024-00727-x"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.579220"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1006710","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.1006710","article-title":"Cellular senescence is a key mediator of lung aging and susceptibility to infection","volume":"13","author":"Torrance","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afi037"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-020-03100-4"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13613-018-0430-6"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0264-410X(94)90241-0"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753466621995050","DOI":"10.1177\/1753466621995050","article-title":"Respiratory viral infections in the elderly","volume":"15","author":"Watson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ther Adv Respir Dis"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejim.2022.07.010","article-title":"Host response dysregulations amongst adults hospitalized by influenza A H1N1 virus pneumonia: a prospective multicenter cohort study","volume":"104","author":"Valenzuela-M\u00e9ndez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur J Intern Med"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jit839"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciy991"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2024.0212","article-title":"Acute cardiac events in hospitalized older adults with respiratory syncytial virus infection","volume":"184","author":"Woodruff","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA Intern Med"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2018.02.013"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jit038"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2022.02.040","article-title":"Caring for older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"28","author":"Prendki","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Infect"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.31083\/j.fbl2809225","article-title":"Impact of immunosenescence on viral infections with an emphasis on COVID-19","volume":"28","author":"Murdaca","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Biosci"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2021436"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2021.03.021","article-title":"Fourteen-day survival among older adults with severe infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 treated with corticosteroid: a cohort study","volume":"27","author":"Gallay","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Infect"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-cellbio-011620-034148"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2045857","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2022.2045857","article-title":"Waning effectiveness of SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines in older adults: a rapid review","volume":"18","author":"Nanishi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hum Vaccin Immunother"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s12979-023-00327-x","article-title":"Frailty impacts immune responses to Moderna COVID-19 mRNA vaccine in older adults","volume":"20","author":"Semelka","year":"2023","journal-title":"Immun Ageing"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-024-00874-4","article-title":"Insights into vaccines for elderly individuals: from the impacts of immunosenescence to delivery strategies","volume":"9","author":"Hou","year":"2024","journal-title":"NPJ Vaccines"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1315727"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100327","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvacx.2023.100327","article-title":"High-dose influenza vaccine in older adults by age and seasonal characteristics: systematic review and meta-analysis update","volume":"14","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vaccine X"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2020.09.004","article-title":"Efficacy and effectiveness of high-dose influenza vaccine in older adults by circulating strain and antigenic match: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"39","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2024.01.017","article-title":"Effectiveness of high-dose versus standard-dose quadrivalent influenza vaccine against recurrent hospitalizations and mortality in relation to influenza circulation: a post hoc analysis of the DANFLU-1 randomized clinical trial","volume":"30","author":"Johansen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Infect"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2022.07.048"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1547","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)01738-0","article-title":"Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccine effectiveness against RSV-associated hospitalisations and emergency department encounters among adults aged 60\u2005years and older in the USA, October, 2023, to March, 2024: a test-negative design analysis","volume":"404","author":"Payne","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2307079"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s12979-025-00506-y","article-title":"Enhancing flu vaccine responses in older adults: preliminary insights from the ISOLDA study on immunosenescence and antioxidant and anti-inflammatory approaches","volume":"22","author":"Aiello","year":"2025","journal-title":"Immun Ageing"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1301152"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e330","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(24)00740-0","article-title":"Future immunisation strategies to prevent Streptococcus pneumoniae infections in children and adults","volume":"25","author":"Ramos","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1919","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114521000386","article-title":"Optimising COVID-19 vaccine efficacy by ensuring nutritional adequacy","volume":"126","author":"Rayman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br J Nutr"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbih.2023.100661","article-title":"Physical activity and sleep relate to antibody maintenance following naturalistic infection and\/or vaccination in older adults","volume":"32","author":"Whittaker","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Behav Immun Health"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1186\/s12979-022-00304-w","article-title":"The impact of circadian rhythms on the immune response to influenza vaccination in middle-aged and older adults (IMPROVE): a randomised controlled trial","volume":"19","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Immun Ageing"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1093\/intimm\/dxaa052","article-title":"Overcoming immune dysfunction in the elderly: trained immunity as a novel approach","volume":"32","author":"Bulut","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int Immunol"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(23)00468-X","article-title":"Reframing sepsis immunobiology for translation: towards informative subtyping and targeted immunomodulatory therapies","volume":"12","author":"Shankar-Hari","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-018-03310-7","article-title":"New therapies for acute RSV infections: where are we?","volume":"178","author":"Xing","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur J Pediatr"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cis844"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12325-022-02256-5"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2021.11.007","article-title":"ESCMID COVID-19 living guidelines: drug treatment and clinical management","volume":"28","author":"Bartoletti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Infect"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD015395.pub3"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469681","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2025.1469681","article-title":"Effectiveness of pharmacological treatments for COVID-19 due to SARS-CoV-2: a systematic literature review","volume":"16","author":"Garcia Vidal","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front Pharmacol"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1080\/17512433.2021.1917378","article-title":"Neuraminidase inhibitors and single dose baloxavir are effective and safe in uncomplicated influenza: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"14","author":"Tejada","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.96","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO) . Clinical Practice Guidelines for Influenza. Geneva, WHO, 2024. www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/9789240097759 Date last accessed: 11 July 2025."},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resinv.2022.11.002","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory effects of medications used for viral infection-induced respiratory diseases","volume":"61","author":"Yamaya","year":"2023","journal-title":"Respir Investig"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41573-023-00672-y"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40266-024-01169-y"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.201748"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14010020","article-title":"Advances and challenges in antiviral development for respiratory viruses","volume":"14","author":"De Jes\u00fas-Gonz\u00e1lez","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11030359"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2024.112433"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2023.112163"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2008.01673.x"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.maturitas.2015.05.004"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25020753","article-title":"Immunosenescence and cytomegalovirus: exploring their connection in the context of aging, health, and disease","volume":"25","author":"M\u00fcller","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000328005"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2019.10.005"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abe4832"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14437","DOI":"10.1111\/acel.14437","article-title":"Senolytic treatment attenuates immune cell infiltration without improving IAV outcomes in aged mice","volume":"24","author":"Luna","year":"2025","journal-title":"Aging Cell"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/glab002"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejim.2025.07.001","article-title":"Redrawing the map for corticosteroids in severe community-acquired pneumonia","volume":"139","author":"Waterer","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur J Intern Med"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejim.2025.02.025","article-title":"Comprehensive management of pneumonia in older patients","volume":"135","author":"Putot","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur J Intern Med"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2019.5791"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(14)70290-5","article-title":"Genome-wide association study of survival from sepsis due to pneumonia: an observational cohort study","volume":"3","author":"Rautanen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04576-6"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3419","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-023-00807-4","article-title":"Impact of influenza, herpes zoster, and pneumococcal vaccinations on the incidence of cardiovascular events in subjects aged over 65 years: a systematic review","volume":"45","author":"Addario","year":"2023","journal-title":"Geroscience"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ahj.2017.07.020"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2022.12.006","article-title":"Impact of vaccination on major adverse cardiovascular events in patients with COVID-19 infection","volume":"81","author":"Jiang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Am Coll Cardiol"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2022.12992","article-title":"Association between vaccination and acute myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke after COVID-19 infection","volume":"328","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2019.1670123"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms10369"},{"key":"2026033102052260000_35.179.250248.124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2017.07.062"}],"container-title":["European Respiratory Review"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/syndication.highwire.org\/content\/doi\/10.1183\/16000617.0248-2025","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T09:06:04Z","timestamp":1774947964000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/publications.ersnet.org\/lookup\/doi\/10.1183\/16000617.0248-2025"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]},"references-count":124,"journal-issue":{"issue":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1183\/16000617.0248-2025"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1183\/16000617.0248-2025","relation":{},"ISSN":["0905-9180","1600-0617"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0905-9180","type":"print"},{"value":"1600-0617","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}}}