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Nematodes in the genus <jats:italic>Panagrolaimus<\/jats:italic> have served in comparative development and anhydrobiosis studies, and the Antarctic species <jats:italic>P. davidi<\/jats:italic> offers a powerful paradigm for understanding the biological mechanisms of extreme cold tolerance. <jats:italic>Panagrolaimus<\/jats:italic> nematodes are also unique in that examples of gonochoristic, hermaphroditic and parthenogenetic reproductive modes have been reported for members of this genus. The evolutionary origins of these varying reproductive modes and the Antarctic species <jats:italic>P. davidi<\/jats:italic>, however, remain enigmatic.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>We collected nuclear ribosomal RNA gene and mitochondrial protein-coding gene sequences from diverse <jats:italic>Panagrolaimus<\/jats:italic> species and strains, including newly discovered isolates from Oregon, to investigate phylogenetic relationships in this nematode genus. Nuclear phylogenies showed that the species and strains historically identified as members of <jats:italic>Panagrolaimus<\/jats:italic> constitute a paraphyletic group, suggesting that taxonomic revision is required for <jats:italic>Panagrolaimus<\/jats:italic> and related nematode lineages. Strain-specific reproductive modes were mapped onto the molecular phylogeny to show a single origin of parthenogenesis from a presumably gonochoristic ancestor. The hermaphroditic strains were all placed outside a major monophyletic clade that contained the majority of other <jats:italic>Panagrolaimus<\/jats:italic> nematodes. Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial sequences showed that substantial molecular and geographic diversity exists within the clade of parthenogenetic strains. The Antarctic species <jats:italic>P. davidi<\/jats:italic> was found to be very closely related to two <jats:italic>Panagrolaimus<\/jats:italic> strains from southern California. Phylogenetic and molecular clock analyses suggested that <jats:italic>P. davidi<\/jats:italic> and the California strain PS1579 shared a common ancestor in the very recent evolutionary past.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>Our study provides a phylogenetic framework for understanding the evolutionary origins and diversification patterns of varying reproductive modes within <jats:italic>Panagrolaimus<\/jats:italic> and important insights into the origin of the Antarctic species <jats:italic>P. davidi<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>Panagrolaimus<\/jats:italic> offers a powerful nematode model for understanding diverse evolutionary phenomena including the evolution of asexuality and the adaptive evolution of extreme cold tolerance.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2148-9-15","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2009,1,17]],"date-time":"2009-01-17T07:12:48Z","timestamp":1232176368000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":38,"title":["Molecular evolution in Panagrolaimus nematodes: origins of parthenogenesis, hermaphroditism and the Antarctic species P. davidi"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Samantha C","family":"Lewis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leslie A","family":"Dyal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Caroline F","family":"Hilburn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephanie","family":"Weitz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wei-Siang","family":"Liau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Craig W","family":"LaMunyon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dee R","family":"Denver","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2009,1,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"929_CR1","volume-title":"The Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans","author":"WB Wood","year":"1988","unstructured":"Wood WB: The Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. 1988, Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press"},{"key":"929_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Genome sequence of the nematode C. elegans: a platform for investigating biology. 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