{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]],"date-time":"2026-10-03T15:10:43Z","timestamp":1791040243282,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int J Health Geogr"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2006,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>To better understand the distribution of typhoid outbreaks in Washington, D.C., the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) conducted four investigations of typhoid fever. These studies included maps of cases reported between 1 May \u2013 31 October 1906 \u2013 1909. These data were entered into a GIS database and analyzed using Ripley's K-function followed by the <jats:italic>G<\/jats:italic>\n              <jats:sub>\n                <jats:italic>i<\/jats:italic>\n              <\/jats:sub>* statistic in yearly intervals to evaluate spatial clustering, the scale of clustering, and the temporal stability of these clusters.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>The Ripley's K-function indicated no global spatial autocorrelation. The <jats:italic>G<\/jats:italic>\n              <jats:sub>\n                <jats:italic>i<\/jats:italic>\n              <\/jats:sub>* statistic indicated clustering of typhoid at multiple scales across the four year time period, refuting the conclusions drawn in all four PHS reports concerning the distribution of cases. While the PHS reports suggested an even distribution of the disease, this study quantified both areas of localized disease clustering, as well as mobile larger regions of clustering. Thus, indicating both highly localized and periodic generalized sources of infection within the city.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>The methodology applied in this study was useful for evaluating the spatial distribution and annual-level temporal patterns of typhoid outbreaks in Washington, D.C. from 1906 to 1909. While advanced spatial analyses of historical data sets must be interpreted with caution, this study does suggest that there is utility in these types of analyses and that they provide new insights into the urban patterns of typhoid outbreaks during the early part of the twentieth century.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-072x-5-13","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2006,4,6]],"date-time":"2006-04-06T12:49:52Z","timestamp":1144327792000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["Spatial and temporal structure of typhoid outbreaks in Washington, D.C., 1906\u20131909: evaluating local clustering with the G\n                i\n              * statistic"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Sarah E","family":"Hinman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jason K","family":"Blackburn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrew","family":"Curtis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2006,3,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"90_CR1","volume-title":"The Burdens of Disease: Epidemics and Human Response in Western History","author":"JN Hays","year":"1998","unstructured":"Hays JN: The Burdens of Disease: Epidemics and Human Response in Western History. 1998, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press"},{"key":"90_CR2","first-page":"49","volume":"25","author":"CM Rosen","year":"1997","unstructured":"Rosen CM: Noisome, noxious, and offensive vapors, fumes and stenches in American towns and cities, 1849\u20131865. Historical Geography. 1997, 25: 49-82.","journal-title":"Historical Geography"},{"key":"90_CR3","volume-title":"Second Annual Report","author":"State Board of Health and Vital Statistics of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania","year":"1887","unstructured":"State Board of Health and Vital Statistics of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania: Second Annual Report. 1887, Harrisburg, PA"},{"key":"90_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8306.1991.tb01705.x","volume":"81","author":"TM Whitmore","year":"1991","unstructured":"Whitmore TM: A simulation of the sixteenth-century population collapse in the basin of Mexico. Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 1991, 81: 464-487. 10.1111\/j.1467-8306.1991.tb01705.x.","journal-title":"Annals of the Association of American Geographers"},{"key":"90_CR5","volume-title":"Disease and Death in Early Colonial Mexico: Simulating Amerindian Depopulation","author":"TM Whitmore","year":"1992","unstructured":"Whitmore TM: Disease and Death in Early Colonial Mexico: Simulating Amerindian Depopulation. 1992, Boulder: Westview Press"},{"key":"90_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1006\/jhge.1997.0077","volume":"24","author":"M Smallman-Raynor","year":"1998","unstructured":"Smallman-Raynor M, Cliff AD: The Philippines insurrection and the 1902\u20134 cholera epidemic: Part I \u2013 Epidemiological diffusion processes in war. Journal of Historical Geography. 1998, 24: 69-89. 10.1006\/jhge.1997.0077.","journal-title":"Journal of Historical Geography"},{"key":"90_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1006\/jhge.1998.0085","volume":"24","author":"M Smallman-Raynor","year":"1998","unstructured":"Smallman-Raynor M, Cliff AD: The Philippines insurrection and the 1902\u20134 cholera epidemic: Part II \u2013 Diffusion patterns in war and peace. Journal of Historical Geography. 1998, 24: 188-210. 10.1006\/jhge.1998.0085.","journal-title":"Journal of Historical Geography"},{"key":"90_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1538-4632.1969.tb00605.x","volume":"1","author":"GF Pyle","year":"1969","unstructured":"Pyle GF: The diffusion of cholera in the United States in the nineteenth century. Geographical Analysis. 1969, 1: 59-75.","journal-title":"Geographical Analysis"},{"key":"90_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1006\/exeh.1995.1022","volume":"32","author":"JB Pritchett","year":"1995","unstructured":"Pritchett JB, Tunali I: Strangers disease \u2013 determinants of yellow-fever mortality during the New Orleans epidemic of 1853. Explorations in Economic History. 1995, 32: 517-539. 10.1006\/exeh.1995.1022.","journal-title":"Explorations in Economic History"},{"key":"90_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-1255(199701)12:1<1::AID-JAE423>3.0.CO;2-Z","volume":"12","author":"I Tunali","year":"1997","unstructured":"Tunali I, Pritchett JB: Cox regression with alternative concepts of waiting time: The New Orleans yellow fever epidemic of 1853. Journal of Applied Econometrics. 1997, 12: 1-25. 10.1002\/(SICI)1099-1255(199701)12:1<1::AID-JAE423>3.0.CO;2-Z.","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Econometrics"},{"key":"90_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-985X.2005.00372.x","volume":"168","author":"B Trevelyan","year":"2005","unstructured":"Trevelyan B, Smallman-Raynor M, Cliff A: The spatial structure of epidemic emergence: geographical aspects of poliomyelitis in north-eastern USA, July-October 1916. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. 2005, 168: 701-722. 10.1111\/j.1467-985X.2005.00372.x.","journal-title":"Journal of the Royal Statistical Society"},{"key":"90_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1111\/0004-5608.00234","volume":"91","author":"M Smallman-Raynor","year":"2001","unstructured":"Smallman-Raynor M, Cliff AD: Epidemic diffusion processes in a system of U.S. military camps: transfer diffusion and the spread of typhoid fever in the Spanish-American war, 1898. Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 2001, 91: 71-91. 10.1111\/0004-5608.00234.","journal-title":"Annals of the Association of American Geographers"},{"key":"90_CR13","volume-title":"Report on the Origin and Spread of Typhoid Fever in U.S. Military Camps During the Spanish War of 1898","author":"W Reed","year":"1904","unstructured":"Reed W, Vaughan VC, Shakespeare EO: Report on the Origin and Spread of Typhoid Fever in U.S. Military Camps During the Spanish War of 1898. 1904, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1:"},{"key":"90_CR14","volume-title":"Report on the Origin and Spread of Typhoid Fever in U.S. Military Camps During the Spanish War of 1898","author":"W Reed","year":"1904","unstructured":"Reed W, Vaughan VC, Shakespeare EO: Report on the Origin and Spread of Typhoid Fever in U.S. Military Camps During the Spanish War of 1898. 1904, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2:"},{"key":"90_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2003.69.494","volume":"69","author":"A Getis","year":"2003","unstructured":"Getis A, Morrison AC, Gray K, Scott TW: Characteristics of the spatial pattern of the dengue vector, Aedes aegypti, in Iquitos, Peru. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2003, 69: 494-505.","journal-title":"American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"},{"key":"90_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2004.71.803","volume":"71","author":"MC Cecere","year":"2004","unstructured":"Cecere MC, Vazquez-Prokopec GM, G\u00fcrtler RE, Kitron U: Spatio-temporal analysis of reinfestation by Triatoma infestans (Hemiptera: reduviidae) following insecticide spraying in a rural community in northwestern Argentina. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2004, 71: 803-810.","journal-title":"American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"},{"key":"90_CR17","first-page":"571","volume":"42","author":"GM Vazquez-Prokopec","year":"2005","unstructured":"Vazquez-Prokopec GM, Cecere MC, Canale DM, G\u00fcrtler RE, Kitron U: Spatiotemporal patterns of reinfestation by Triatoma guasayana (Hemiptera: reduviidae) in a rural community of northwestern Argentina. Population and Community Ecology. 2005, 42: 571-581.","journal-title":"Population and Community Ecology"},{"key":"90_CR18","volume-title":"The Official Patient's Sourcebook on Typhoid Fever","year":"2002","unstructured":"Parker JN, Parker PM, Eds: The Official Patient's Sourcebook on Typhoid Fever. 2002, San Diego, CA: Icon Health Publications"},{"key":"90_CR19","unstructured":"Center for Disease Control: Disease Information: Typhoid Fever. [http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/ncidod\/dbmd\/diseaseinfo\/typhoidfever_g.htm]"},{"key":"90_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1016\/S0277-9536(99)00345-7","volume":"50","author":"KS McLeod","year":"2000","unstructured":"McLeod KS: Our sense of Snow: The myth of John Snow in medical geography. Social Science and Medicine. 2000, 50: 923-935. 10.1016\/S0277-9536(99)00345-7.","journal-title":"Social Science and Medicine"},{"key":"90_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3138\/B123-8124-4390-5792","volume":"39","author":"T Koch","year":"2004","unstructured":"Koch T: Map as intent: variations on the theme of John Snow. Catographica. 2004, 39: 1-14.","journal-title":"Catographica"},{"key":"90_CR22","volume-title":"Typhoid Fever Its Causation, Transmission, and Prevention","author":"GC Whipple","year":"1908","unstructured":"Whipple GC: Typhoid Fever Its Causation, Transmission, and Prevention. 1908, New York: John Wiley and Sons"},{"key":"90_CR23","volume-title":"Report No. 4 on the Origin and Prevalence of Typhoid Fever in the District of Columbia (1909\u20131910)","author":"LL Lumsden","year":"1911","unstructured":"Lumsden LL, Anderson JF: Report No. 4 on the Origin and Prevalence of Typhoid Fever in the District of Columbia (1909\u20131910). 1911, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office"},{"key":"90_CR24","volume-title":"Report on the Origin and Prevalence of Typhoid Fever in the District of Columbia","author":"MJ Rosenau","year":"1907","unstructured":"Rosenau MJ, Lumsden LL, Kastle JH: Report on the Origin and Prevalence of Typhoid Fever in the District of Columbia. 1907, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office"},{"key":"90_CR25","volume-title":"Report No.2 on the Origin and Prevalence of Typhoid Fever in the District of Columbia (1907)","author":"MJ Rosenau","year":"1908","unstructured":"Rosenau MJ, Lumsden LL, Kastle JH: Report No.2 on the Origin and Prevalence of Typhoid Fever in the District of Columbia (1907). 1908, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office"},{"key":"90_CR26","volume-title":"Report No.3 on the Origin and Prevalence of Typhoid Fever in the District of Columbia (1908)","author":"MJ Rosenau","year":"1909","unstructured":"Rosenau MJ, Lumsden LL, Kastle JH: Report No.3 on the Origin and Prevalence of Typhoid Fever in the District of Columbia (1908). 1909, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office"},{"key":"90_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780198203773.001.0001","volume-title":"The Epidemic Streets: Infectious Disease and the Rise of Preventative Medicine, 1856\u20131900","author":"A Hardy","year":"1993","unstructured":"Hardy A: The Epidemic Streets: Infectious Disease and the Rise of Preventative Medicine, 1856\u20131900. 1993, Oxford: Clarendon Press"},{"key":"90_CR28","first-page":"3","volume":"254","author":"C McEvedy","year":"1988","unstructured":"McEvedy C: The bubonic plague. Scientific American. 1988, 254: 3-12.","journal-title":"Scientific American"},{"key":"90_CR29","volume-title":"Times of Crisis: Epidemics in Sydney, 1788\u20131900","author":"PH Curson","year":"1985","unstructured":"Curson PH: Times of Crisis: Epidemics in Sydney, 1788\u20131900. 1985, Sydney: Sydney University Press"},{"key":"90_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.2307\/2648082","volume":"36","author":"C Elman","year":"1999","unstructured":"Elman C, Myers GC: Geographic morbidity differentials in the late nineteenth-century United States. Demography. 1999, 36: 429-443.","journal-title":"Demography"},{"key":"90_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0033-0124.1993.00276.x","volume":"45","author":"JL Wilson","year":"1993","unstructured":"Wilson JL: Mapping the geographical diffusion of a Finnish smallpox epidemic from historical population records. Professional Geographer. 1993, 45: 276-286. 10.1111\/j.0033-0124.1993.00276.x.","journal-title":"Professional Geographer"},{"key":"90_CR32","volume-title":"Twenty-Fourth Annual Report of the State Board of Health of Massachusetts","author":"WT Sedgwick","year":"1893","unstructured":"Sedgwick WT: Investigation of recent epidemics of typhoid fever in Massachusetts. Twenty-Fourth Annual Report of the State Board of Health of Massachusetts. 1893, Boston: Wright and Potter Printing Co., State Printers"},{"key":"90_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511549489","volume-title":"Deciphering Global Epidemics: Analytical Approaches to the Disease Records of World Cities, 1888\u20131912","author":"AD Cliff","year":"1998","unstructured":"Cliff AD, Haggett P, Smallman-Raynor M: Deciphering Global Epidemics: Analytical Approaches to the Disease Records of World Cities, 1888\u20131912. 1998, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press"},{"key":"90_CR34","first-page":"209","volume-title":"The Cambridge World History of Human Disease","author":"FL MacKellar","year":"1993","unstructured":"MacKellar FL: Early mortality data: sources and difficulties of interpretation. The Cambridge World History of Human Disease. Edited by: Kiple KF. 1993, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 209-213."},{"key":"90_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/0305-7488(75)90184-X","volume":"1","author":"PA Groves","year":"1975","unstructured":"Groves PA, Muller EK: The evolution of black residential areas in late nineteenth century cities. Journal of Historical Geography. 1975, 1: 169-191. 10.1016\/0305-7488(75)90184-X.","journal-title":"Journal of Historical Geography"},{"key":"90_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0033-0124.1974.00270.x","volume":"26","author":"PA Groves","year":"1974","unstructured":"Groves PA: The \"hidden\" population: Washington alley dwellers in the late nineteenth century. Professional Geographer. 1974, 26: 270-276. 10.1111\/j.0033-0124.1974.00270.x.","journal-title":"Professional Geographer"},{"key":"90_CR37","first-page":"260","volume-title":"Columbia Historical Society Records","author":"PA Groves","year":"1973","unstructured":"Groves PA: The development of a black residential community in southwest Washington: 1860\u20131897. Columbia Historical Society Records. 1973, 260-275."},{"key":"90_CR38","volume-title":"Alley Life in Washington: Family, Community, Religion, and Folklife in the City, 1850\u20131970","author":"J Borchert","year":"1980","unstructured":"Borchert J: Alley Life in Washington: Family, Community, Religion, and Folklife in the City, 1850\u20131970. 1980, Chicago: University of Illinois Press"},{"key":"90_CR39","first-page":"276","volume-title":"Columbia Historical Society Records","author":"SH Myers","year":"1973","unstructured":"Myers SH: Capitol Hill, 1870\u20131900: The people and their homes. Columbia Historical Society Records. 1973, 276-299."},{"key":"90_CR40","volume-title":"ClusterSeer: Software for Identifying Event Clusters","author":"H Durbeck","year":"2002","unstructured":"Durbeck H, Greiling D, Estberg L, Long A, Jacquez G: ClusterSeer: Software for Identifying Event Clusters. 2002, User's Guide. TerraSeer, Inc"},{"key":"90_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1538-4632.1992.tb00261.x","volume":"24","author":"A Getis","year":"1992","unstructured":"Getis A, Ord JK: The analysis of spatial association by use of distance statistics. Geographical Analysis. 1992, 24: 189-206.","journal-title":"Geographical Analysis"},{"key":"90_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1538-4632.1995.tb00912.x","volume":"27","author":"JK Ord","year":"1995","unstructured":"Ord JK, Getis A: Local spatial autocorrelations statistics: distributional issues and an application. Geographical Analysis. 1995, 27: 286-306.","journal-title":"Geographical Analysis"},{"key":"90_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-4-23","volume":"4","author":"J Wu","year":"2004","unstructured":"Wu J, Wang J, Meng B, Chen G, Pang L, Song X, Zhang K, Zhang T, Zheng X: Exploratory spatial data analysis for the identification of risk factors to birth defects. BMC Public Health. 2004, 4: 23-10.1186\/1471-2458-4-23.","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"90_CR44","unstructured":"National Park Service Grid Tool extension for ArcGIS 9.0. [http:\/\/www1.nature.nps.gov\/im\/units\/mwr\/gis\/grid\/grid_tools.htm]"},{"key":"90_CR45","unstructured":"Hawth's Anaylsis Tools extension for ArcGIS 9.0. [http:\/\/www.spatialecology.com]"},{"key":"90_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1538-4632.2004.tb01127.x","volume":"32","author":"A Getis","year":"2004","unstructured":"Getis A, Aldstadt J: onstructing the spatial weights matrix using a local statistic. Geographical Analysis. 2004, 32: 90-104. 10.1353\/geo.2004.0002.","journal-title":"Geographical Analysis"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Health Geographics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/1476-072X-5-13.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,1]],"date-time":"2021-09-01T09:38:18Z","timestamp":1630489098000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/ij-healthgeographics.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/1476-072X-5-13"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2006,3,27]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2006,12]]}},"alternative-id":["90"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1476-072x-5-13","relation":{},"ISSN":["1476-072X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1476-072X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2006,3,27]]},"assertion":[{"value":"9 December 2005","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"27 March 2006","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"27 March 2006","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}}],"article-number":"13"}}