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Vaccines effective against toxin have been licensed for human use, but need improvement. Vaccines against bacilli have recently been developed by us and others. Whether effective vaccines will be developed against spores is still an open question. An ideal vaccine would confer simultaneous protection against spores, bacilli, and toxins. One step towards this goal is our dually active vaccine, designed to destroy both bacilli and toxin. Existing and potential strategies towards potent and effective anthrax vaccines are discussed in this review.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-9433-4-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2005,3,25]],"date-time":"2005-03-25T07:16:08Z","timestamp":1111734968000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":57,"title":["Anthrax vaccine design: strategies to achieve comprehensive protection against spore, bacillus, and toxin"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"4","author":[{"given":"Julia Y","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael H","family":"Roehrl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2005,3,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"13_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1525\/california\/9780520222045.001.0001","volume-title":"Anthrax: the investigation of a deadly outbreak","author":"J Guillemin","year":"1999","unstructured":"Guillemin J: Anthrax: the investigation of a deadly outbreak. 1999, Berkeley: University of California Press"},{"key":"13_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2236","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.287.17.2236","volume":"287","author":"TV Inglesby","year":"2002","unstructured":"Inglesby TV, O'Toole T, Henderson DA, Bartlett JG, Ascher MS, Eitzen E, Friedlander AM, Gerberding J, Hauer J, Hughes J, et al: Anthrax as a biological weapon, 2002: updated recommendations for management. 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