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The heterogeneity of cancer vaccine data significantly impedes effective integration and analysis. While CanVaxKB serves as a pioneering database for over 670 manually annotated cancer vaccines, it is important to distinguish that a database, on its own, does not offer the structured relationships and standardized definitions found in an ontology. Recognizing this, we expanded the Vaccine Ontology (VO) to include those cancer vaccines present in CanVaxKB that were not initially covered, enhancing VO\u2019s capacity to systematically define and interrelate cancer vaccines.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>An ontology design pattern (ODP) was first developed and applied to semantically represent various cancer vaccines, capturing their associated entities and relations. By applying the ODP, we generated a cancer vaccine template in a tabular format and converted it into the RDF\/OWL format for generation of cancer vaccine terms in the VO. \u201812MP vaccine\u2019 was used as an example of cancer vaccines to demonstrate the application of the ODP. VO also reuses reference ontology terms to represent entities such as cancer diseases and vaccine hosts. Description Logic (DL) and SPARQL query scripts were developed and used to query for cancer vaccines based on different vaccine\u2019s features and to demonstrate the versatility of the VO representation. Additionally, ontological modeling was applied to illustrate cancer vaccine related concepts and studies for in-depth cancer vaccine analysis. A cancer vaccine-specific VO view, referred to as \u201cCVO,\u201d was generated, and it contains 928 classes including 704 cancer vaccines. The CVO OWL file is publicly available on: <jats:ext-link xmlns:xlink=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xlink\" ext-link-type=\"uri\" xlink:href=\"http:\/\/purl.obolibrary.org\/obo\/vo\/cvo.owl\">http:\/\/purl.obolibrary.org\/obo\/vo\/cvo.owl<\/jats:ext-link>, for sharing and applications.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>To facilitate the standardization, integration, and analysis of cancer vaccine data, we expanded the Vaccine Ontology (VO) to systematically model and represent cancer vaccines. We also developed a pipeline to automate the inclusion of cancer vaccines and associated terms in the VO. This not only enriches the data\u2019s standardization and integration, but also leverages ontological modeling to deepen the analysis of cancer vaccine information, maximizing benefits for researchers and clinicians.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Availability<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>The VO-cancer GitHub website is: <jats:ext-link xmlns:xlink=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xlink\" ext-link-type=\"uri\" xlink:href=\"https:\/\/github.com\/vaccineontology\/VO\/tree\/master\/CVO\">https:\/\/github.com\/vaccineontology\/VO\/tree\/master\/CVO<\/jats:ext-link>.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13326-024-00312-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,18]],"date-time":"2024-06-18T23:02:49Z","timestamp":1718751769000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Empowering standardization of cancer vaccines through ontology: enhanced modeling and data analysis"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Jie","family":"Zheng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xingxian","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna Maria","family":"Masci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hayleigh","family":"Kahn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anthony","family":"Huffman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eliyas","family":"Asfaw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuanyi","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jinjing","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Virginia","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Justin","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrey I.","family":"Seleznev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Asiyah Yu","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yongqun","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"312_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S87","DOI":"10.3747\/co.27.5223","volume":"27","author":"K Esfahani","year":"2020","unstructured":"Esfahani K, Roudaia L, Buhlaiga N, Del Rincon SV, Papneja N, Miller WH. 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