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Traditional physical sensors, while effective, can be costly and impractical to deploy extensively across complex systems. This paper introduces an innovative approach leveraging non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) to create acoustic virtual sensors that analyze sound spectrograms for real-time industrial process monitoring. By decomposing acoustic signals captured from machinery into distinct spectral components, the proposed method enables the detection of specific operational phases and potential anomalies. While the methodology is demonstrated using a plastic injection molding machine, it is designed to be adaptable to a wide range of industrial processes where machinery generates distinct acoustic signatures. The approach involves capturing high-fidelity acoustic data, applying NMF to extract activation matrices that represent unique acoustic patterns, and using clustering techniques to ensure robust identification of operational states across different environments. This generalizable framework allows for scalable monitoring solutions across various industrial applications, from manufacturing lines to heavy machinery operations. This study highlights the potential of acoustic virtual sensors as a cost-effective, scalable solution for industrial monitoring, offering new possibilities for predictive maintenance and anomaly detection in diverse manufacturing environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13636-025-00417-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,1]],"date-time":"2025-08-01T11:35:10Z","timestamp":1754048110000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Acoustic virtual sensors for industrial process monitoring using non-negative matrix factorization"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"2025","author":[{"given":"Clara","family":"Luzon-Alvarez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7318-3192","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maximo","family":"Cobos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jesus","family":"Lopez-Ballester","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ana M.","family":"Torres-Aranda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesc J.","family":"Ferri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"417_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M. 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