{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T05:06:53Z","timestamp":1772773613994,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":20,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,2]],"date-time":"2021-11-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1635811200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,2]],"date-time":"2021-11-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1635811200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Inf."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative brain pathology formed due to piling up of amyloid proteins, development of plaques and disappearance of neurons. Another common subtype of dementia like AD, Parkinson\u2019s disease (PD) is determined by the disappearance of dopaminergic neurons in the region known as substantia nigra pars compacta located in the midbrain. Both AD and PD target aged population worldwide forming a major chunk of healthcare costs. Hence, there is a need for methods that help in the early diagnosis of these diseases. PD subjects especially those who have confirmed postmortem plaque are a strong candidate for a second AD diagnosis. Modalities such as positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) can be combined with deep learning methods to diagnose these two diseases for the benefit of clinicians.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Result<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>In this work, we deployed a 3D Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) to extract features for multiclass classification of both AD and PD in the frequency and spatial domains using PET and SPECT neuroimaging modalities to differentiate between AD, PD and Normal Control (NC) classes. Discrete Cosine Transform has been deployed as a frequency domain learning method along with random weak Gaussian blurring and random zooming in\/out augmentation methods in both frequency and spatial domains. To select the hyperparameters of the 3D-CNN model, we deployed both 5- and 10-fold cross-validation (CV) approaches. The best performing model was found to be AD\/NC(SPECT)\/PD classification with random weak Gaussian blurred augmentation in the spatial domain using fivefold CV approach while the worst performing model happens to be AD\/NC(PET)\/PD classification without augmentation in the frequency domain using tenfold CV approach. We also found that spatial domain methods tend to perform better than their frequency domain counterparts.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>The proposed model provides a good performance in discriminating AD and PD subjects due to minimal correlation between these two dementia types on the clinicopathological continuum between AD and PD subjects from a neuroimaging perspective.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s40708-021-00144-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,2]],"date-time":"2021-11-02T01:02:29Z","timestamp":1635814949000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":52,"title":["3D convolutional neural networks-based multiclass classification of Alzheimer\u2019s and Parkinson\u2019s diseases using PET and SPECT neuroimaging modalities"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Ahsan Bin","family":"Tufail","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9535-5167","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yong-Kui","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Qiu-Na","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Adil","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Lei","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Qiang","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Muhammad","family":"Adeel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Rahim","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Inam","family":"Ullah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,2]]},"reference":[{"issue":"23","key":"144_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2551","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2014.13806","volume":"312","author":"KM Langa","year":"2014","unstructured":"Langa KM, Levine DA (2014) The diagnosis and management of mild cognitive impairment: a clinical review. 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