{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,21]],"date-time":"2025-02-21T13:28:08Z","timestamp":1740144488662,"version":"3.37.3"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]],"date-time":"2021-07-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1627344000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]],"date-time":"2021-07-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1627344000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["16H06304"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["16H06304"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001863","name":"New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["18102059-0"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["18102059-0"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001863","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["20K20131"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20K20131"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["20H01722"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20H01722"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"SPIRITS 2020 of Kyoto University"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["20H01722"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20H01722"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["RPTEL"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Self-direction skill is considered a vital skill for twenty-first-century learners in both the learning context and physical activity context. Analysis skill for self-directed activities requires the students to analyze their own activity data for understanding their status in that activity. It is an important phase that determines whether an appropriate plan can be set or not. This research presents a framework designed to foster students\u2019 analysis skill in self-directed activities, which aims (1) to build a technology-enabled learning system allowing students to practice analyzing data from their own daily contexts, (2) to propose an approach to model student\u2019s analysis skill acquisition level and process, and (3) to provide automated support and feedback for analysis skill development tasks. The analysis module based on the proposed framework was implemented in the GOAL system which synchronized data from learners\u2019 physical and reading activities. A study was conducted with 51 undergraduate students to find reliable indicators for the model to then measure students\u2019 analysis skills. By further analyzing students\u2019 actual usage of the GOAL system, we found the actual activity levels and their preferences regarding analysis varied for the chosen contexts (learning and physical activity). The different context preference groups were almost equal, highlighting the utility of a system that integrates data from multiple contexts. Such a system can potentially respond to students\u2019 individual preferences to execute and acquire self-direction skill.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1186\/s41039-021-00170-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]],"date-time":"2021-07-27T11:02:49Z","timestamp":1627383769000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A framework to foster analysis skill for self-directed activities in data-rich environment"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Yuanyuan","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rwitajit","family":"Majumdar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Huiyong","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"G\u00f6khan","family":"Ak\u00e7apinar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Brendan","family":"Flanagan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hiroaki","family":"Ogata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"170_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ak\u00e7ap\u0131nar, G., Altun, A., A\u015fkar, P. (2019). Using learning analytics to develop early-warning system for at-risk students. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 16(40). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s41239-019-0172-z.","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239-019-0172-z"},{"issue":"3","key":"170_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1598\/RRQ.23.3.2","volume":"23","author":"R.C. Anderson","year":"1988","unstructured":"Anderson, R.C., Wilson, P.T., Fielding, L.G. (1988). Growth in reading and how children spend their time outside of school. Reading Research Quarterly, 23(3), 285\u2013303. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1598\/rrq.23.3.2.","journal-title":"Reading Research Quarterly"},{"key":"170_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Andrade, A. (2017). Understanding student learning trajectories using multimodal learning analytics within an embodied-interaction learning environment. ACM International Conference on LAK, 70\u201379. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3027385.3027429.","DOI":"10.1145\/3027385.3027429"},{"key":"170_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ansley, T. (1996). The role of standardized achievement tests in grades k-12. In Educational Psychology, Handbook of Classroom Assessment. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/B978-012554155-8\/50011-9. Academic Press, (pp. 265\u2013285).","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012554155-8\/50011-9"},{"key":"170_CR5","unstructured":"Askinadze, A., Liebeck, M., Conrad, S. (2018). Predicting student test performance based on time series data of ebook reader behavior using the cluster-distance space transformation. In ICCE 2018 - 26th International Conference on Computers in Education, Workshop Proceedings, Manila, (pp. 430\u2013439)."},{"issue":"6","key":"170_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1080\/10447310802205776","volume":"24","author":"A. Bangor","year":"2008","unstructured":"Bangor, A., Kortum, P.T., Miller, J.T. (2008). An empirical evaluation of the system usability scale. International Journal of Human\u2013Computer Interaction, 24(6), 574\u2013594.","journal-title":"International Journal of Human\u2013Computer Interaction"},{"key":"170_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429457319","volume-title":"Self-direction in adult learning: Perspectives on theory, research and practice","author":"R.G. Brockett","year":"2018","unstructured":"Brockett, R.G., & Hiemstra, R. (2018). Self-direction in adult learning: Perspectives on theory, research and practice. New York: Routledge."},{"key":"170_CR8","volume-title":"SUS: A \u201cquick and dirty\u201d usability scale","author":"J. Brooke","year":"1996","unstructured":"Brooke, J. (1996). SUS: A \u201cquick and dirty\u201d usability scale. London: Taylor and Francis."},{"key":"170_CR9","volume-title":"Self-direction for lifelong learning. A comprehensive guide to theory and practice","author":"P.C. Candy","year":"1991","unstructured":"Candy, P.C. (1991). Self-direction for lifelong learning. A comprehensive guide to theory and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass."},{"issue":"5-6","key":"170_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1504\/IJTEL.2012.051815","volume":"4","author":"M.A. Chatti","year":"2012","unstructured":"Chatti, M.A., Dyckhoff, A.L., Schroeder, U., Th\u00fcs, H. (2012). A reference model for learning analytics. International Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning, 4(5-6), 318\u2013331.","journal-title":"International Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning"},{"key":"170_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Di Mitri, D., B\u00f6rner, D., Scheffel, M., Ternier, S., Drachsler, H., Specht, M. (2017). Learning pulse: A machine learning approach for predicting performance in self-regulated learning using multimodal data. ACM International Conference on LAK, 188\u2013197. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3027385.3027447.","DOI":"10.1145\/3027385.3027447"},{"issue":"7","key":"170_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1054\/nedt.2001.0589","volume":"21","author":"M. Fisher","year":"2001","unstructured":"Fisher, M., King, J., Tague, G. (2001). Development of a self-directed learning readiness scale for nursing education. Nurse Education Today, 21(7), 516\u2013525.","journal-title":"Nurse Education Today"},{"key":"170_CR13","unstructured":"Flanagan, B., Chen, W., Ogata, H. (2018). Joint activity on learner performance prediction using the BookRoll dataset. In ICCE 2018 - 26th International Conference on Computers in Education, Workshop Proceedings, Manila, (pp. 487\u2013492)."},{"key":"170_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.edurev.2015.04.001","volume":"15","author":"L. Gerard","year":"2015","unstructured":"Gerard, L., Matuk, C., McElhaney, K., Linn, M. (2015). Automated, adaptive guidance for k-12 education. Educational Research Review, 15, 41\u201358.","journal-title":"Educational Research Review"},{"key":"170_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203770924","volume-title":"Self-directed learning: Critical practice","author":"M. Hammond","year":"2013","unstructured":"Hammond, M., & Collinsa, R. (2013). Self-directed learning: Critical practice. New York: Routledge."},{"key":"170_CR16","unstructured":"Hasnine, M., Ak\u00e7a\u0131nar, G., Flanagan, B., Majumdar, R., Ogata, H., Mouri, K. (2018). Towards final scores prediction over clickstream using machine learning methods. In ICCE 2018 - 26th International Conference on Computers in Education, Manila, (pp. 392\u2013397)."},{"issue":"1-2","key":"170_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.3233\/EFI-150948","volume":"31","author":"Y. Jang","year":"2015","unstructured":"Jang, Y. (2015). Convenience matters: A qualitative study on the impact of use of social media and collaboration technologies on learning experience and performance in higher education. Education for Information, 31(1-2), 73\u201398.","journal-title":"Education for Information"},{"key":"170_CR18","volume-title":"Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers","author":"M.S. Knowles","year":"1975","unstructured":"Knowles, M.S. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. New York: Association Press."},{"issue":"1","key":"170_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2016.2598920","volume":"23","author":"S. Lee","year":"2017","unstructured":"Lee, S., Kim, S.H., Kwon, B.C. (2017). VLAT: Development of a visualization literacy assessment test. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, 23(1), 551\u2013560.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics"},{"issue":"4","key":"170_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-008-9082-7","volume":"20","author":"S.M.M. Loyens","year":"2008","unstructured":"Loyens, S.M.M., Magda, J., Rikers, R.M.J.P. (2008). Self-directed learning in problem-based learning and its relationships with self-regulated learning. Educational Psychology Review, 20(4), 411\u2013427.","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"170_CR21","unstructured":"Majumdar, R., Yang, Y.Y., Li, H., Ak\u00e7apinar, G., Flanagan, B., Ogata, H. (2018). Goal: Supporting learner\u2019s development of selfdirection skills using health and learning data. In ICCE 2018 - 26th International Conference on Computers in Education, Main Conference Proceedings, Manila, (pp. 406\u2013415)."},{"key":"170_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1109\/ICALT.2019.00025","volume-title":"2019 IEEE 19th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT), volume 2161-377X","author":"R. Majumdar","year":"2019","unstructured":"Majumdar, R., Yang, Y.Y., Li, H., Ak\u00e7apinar, G., Flanagan, B., Ogata, H. (2019). Adaptive support for acquisition of self-direction skills using learning and health data. In 2019 IEEE 19th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT), volume 2161-377X. Curran Associates, Brazil, (pp. 54\u201356)."},{"key":"170_CR23","first-page":"5","volume":"22","author":"L. Mariani","year":"1997","unstructured":"Mariani, L. (1997). Teacher support and teacher challenge in promoting learner autonomy. Perspectives, a Journal of TESOL-Italy, 22, 5\u201319.","journal-title":"Perspectives, a Journal of TESOL-Italy"},{"issue":"1","key":"170_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1007\/s12160-013-9486-6","volume":"46","author":"S. Michie","year":"2013","unstructured":"Michie, S., Richardson, M., Johnston, M., Abraham, C., Francis, J., Hardeman, W., Eccles, M.P., Cane, J., Wood, C.E. (2013). The behavior change technique taxonomy (v1) of 93 hierarchically clustered techniques: Building an international consensus for the reporting of behavior change interventions. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 46(1), 81\u201395.","journal-title":"Annals of Behavioral Medicine"},{"key":"170_CR25","first-page":"235","volume-title":"The Handbook of Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine","author":"J. Mirowsky","year":"2010","unstructured":"Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C.E. (2010). Self-direction toward Health: Overriding the Default American Lifestyle. In The Handbook of Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine. Guilford Press, New York, (pp. 235\u2013250)."},{"key":"170_CR26","volume-title":"JALT2009 Conference Proceedings","author":"J. Noguchi","year":"2010","unstructured":"Noguchi, J., & Mccarthy, T. (2010). Reflective self-study: Fostering learner autonomy. In: Stoke, A.M. (Ed.) In JALT2009 Conference Proceedings. JALT, Tokyo."},{"key":"170_CR27","unstructured":"Ogata, H., Yin, C., Oi, M., Okubo, F., Shimada, A., Kojima, K., Yamada, M. (2015). Ebook-based learning analytics in university education. In International Conference on Computer in Education (ICCE 2015), Saskatoon, (pp. 401\u2013406)."},{"key":"170_CR28","unstructured":"P, 21-Framework (2009). A framework for 21st century learning. http:\/\/www.p21.org\/our-work\/p21-framework. Accessed 30 July 2020."},{"issue":"4 PART 1","key":"170_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2013.08.042","volume":"41","author":"A. Pe\u00f1a-Ayala","year":"2014","unstructured":"Pe\u00f1a-Ayala, A. (2014). Educational data mining: A survey and a data mining-based analysis of recent works. Expert Systems with Applications, 41(4 PART 1), 1432\u20131462.","journal-title":"Expert Systems with Applications"},{"issue":"1","key":"170_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1002\/cae.20456","volume":"21","author":"C. Romero","year":"2013","unstructured":"Romero, C., Espejo, P.G., Zafra, A., Romero, J.R., Ventura, S. (2013). Web usage mining for predicting final marks of students that use Moodle courses. Computer Applications in Engineering Education, 21(1), 135\u2013146.","journal-title":"Computer Applications in Engineering Education"},{"key":"170_CR31","first-page":"223","volume-title":"XXII Ibero-American Conference on Software Engineering, CIbSE 2019","author":"E. Serral","year":"2019","unstructured":"Serral, E., Ruiz, J., Elen, J., Snoeck, M. (2019). Conceptualizing the domain of automated feedback for learners. In XXII Ibero-American Conference on Software Engineering, CIbSE 2019. Curran Associates, Cuba, (pp. 223\u2013236)."},{"issue":"1","key":"170_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.3102\/0034654307313795","volume":"78","author":"V.J. Shute","year":"2008","unstructured":"Shute, V.J. (2008). Focus on formative feedback. Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 153\u2013189.","journal-title":"Review of Educational Research"},{"key":"170_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spann, C.A., Schaeffer, J., Siemens, G. (2017). Expanding the scope of learning analytics data: Preliminary findings on attention and self-regulation using wearable technology. ACM International Conference on LAK, 203\u2013207.","DOI":"10.1145\/3027385.3027427"},{"issue":"2","key":"170_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1177\/0741713610380447","volume":"61","author":"S.L. Stockdale","year":"2011","unstructured":"Stockdale, S.L., & Brockett, R.G. (2011). Development of the PRO-SDLS: A measure of self-direction in learning based on the personal responsibility orientation model. Adult Education Quarterly, 61(2), 161\u2013180.","journal-title":"Adult Education Quarterly"},{"issue":"1","key":"170_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1080\/03075079512331381820","volume":"20","author":"I. Taylor","year":"1995","unstructured":"Taylor, I., & Burgess, H. (1995). Orientation to self-directed learning: Paradox or paradigm?Studies in Higher Education, 20(1), 87\u201398.","journal-title":"Studies in Higher Education"},{"key":"170_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.5746\/LEiA\/10\/V1\/A14\/Thornton","volume":"1","author":"K. Thornton","year":"2010","unstructured":"Thornton, K. (2010). Supporting self-directed learning: A framework for teachers. Language Education in Asia, 1, 158\u2013170.","journal-title":"Language Education in Asia"},{"issue":"7 SUPPL.1","key":"170_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e31817c7133","volume":"40","author":"C. Tudor-Locke","year":"2008","unstructured":"Tudor-Locke, C., Hatano, Y., Pangrazi, R.P., Kang, M. (2008). Revisiting \u201chow many steps are enough?\u201dMedicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 40(7 SUPPL.1), 537\u2013543.","journal-title":"Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise"},{"key":"170_CR38","first-page":"71","volume":"13","author":"J.T. Walker","year":"2003","unstructured":"Walker, J.T., & Lofton, S.P. (2003). Effect of a problem based learning curriculum on students\u2019 perceptions of self directed learning. Issues in Educational Research, 13, 71\u2013100.","journal-title":"Issues in Educational Research"},{"issue":"2","key":"170_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.7748\/nr2007.01.14.2.66.c6022","volume":"14","author":"S.N. Williamson","year":"2007","unstructured":"Williamson, S.N. (2007). Development of a self-rating scale of self-directed learning. Nurse Researcher, 14(2), 66\u201383.","journal-title":"Nurse Researcher"},{"key":"170_CR40","unstructured":"xAPI (2016). Experience API (xAPI) specification. http:\/\/github.com\/adlnet\/xAPI-Spec. Accessed 30 July 2020."},{"key":"170_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1142\/6986","volume-title":"Linear regression analysis: Theory and computing","author":"Y. Xin","year":"2009","unstructured":"Xin, Y., & Xiaogang, S. (2009). Linear regression analysis: Theory and computing. Singapore: World Scientific."}],"container-title":["Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s41039-021-00170-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s41039-021-00170-y\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s41039-021-00170-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]],"date-time":"2021-07-27T11:19:44Z","timestamp":1627384784000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/telrp.springeropen.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s41039-021-00170-y"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]}},"alternative-id":["170"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s41039-021-00170-y","relation":{},"ISSN":["1793-7078"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1793-7078"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]]},"assertion":[{"value":"10 September 2020","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"19 June 2021","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"27 July 2021","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"All the participants participated in the course and had given the consent to use their learning, physical activity, interaction logs, and survey response for academic research reporting.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"22"}}