{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T07:21:35Z","timestamp":1782804095530,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":22,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,3]],"date-time":"2024-06-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1717372800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,3]],"date-time":"2024-06-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1717372800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cybersecurity"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>During the standardisation process of post-quantum cryptography, NIST encourages research on side-channel analysis for candidate schemes. As the recommended lattice signature scheme, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, when implemented on hardware, has seen limited research on side-channel analysis, and current attacks are incomplete or requires a substantial quantity of traces. Therefore, we conducted a more complete analysis to investigate the leakage of an FPGA implementation of CRYSTALS-Dilithium using the Correlation Power Analysis (CPA) method, where with a minimum of 70,000 traces partial private key coefficients can be recovered. Furthermore, we optimise the attack by extracting Point-of-Interests using known information due to parallelism (named CPA-PoI) and by iteratively utilising parallel leakages (named CPA-ITR). Our experimental results show that CPA-PoI reduces the number of traces by up to 16.67%, CPA-ITR by up to 25%, and both increase the number of recovered key coefficients by up to 55.17% and 93.10% using the same number of traces. They outperfom the CPA method. As a result, it suggests that the FPGA implementation of CRYSTALS-Dilithium is more vulnerable than thought before to side-channel analysis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1186\/s42400-024-00209-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,3]],"date-time":"2024-06-03T03:11:03Z","timestamp":1717384263000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["In-depth Correlation Power Analysis Attacks on a Hardware Implementation of CRYSTALS-Dilithium"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Huaxin","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yiwen","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuejun","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qian","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yongbin","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,3]]},"reference":[{"issue":"5","key":"209_CR1","first-page":"1","volume":"36","author":"PA Fouque","year":"2018","unstructured":"Fouque PA, Hoffstein J, Kirchner P, Lyubashevsky V, Pornin T, Prest T, Ricosset T, Seiler G, Whyte W, Zhang Z et al (2018) Falcon: Fast-Fourier lattice-based compact signatures over NTRU. Submiss NIST\u2019s Post-quantum Cryptogr Stand Process 36(5):1\u201375","journal-title":"Submiss NIST\u2019s Post-quantum Cryptogr Stand Process"},{"key":"209_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"166283","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3135600","volume":"9","author":"J Han","year":"2021","unstructured":"Han J, Lee T, Kwon J, Lee J, Kim IJ, Cho J, Han DG, Sim BY (2021) Single-trace attack on NIST round 3 candidate Dilithium using machine learning-based profiling. IEEE Access 9:166283\u2013166292. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3135600","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"209_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2022.3215913","volume":"18","author":"Z Qiao","year":"2023","unstructured":"Qiao Z, Liu Y, Zhou Y, Ming J, Jin C, Li H (2023) Practical public template attack attacks on CRYSTALS-Dilithium with randomness leakages. IEEE Trans Inf Forensics Secur 18:1\u201314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TIFS.2022.3215913","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Inf Forensics Secur"},{"key":"209_CR4","unstructured":"Avanzi R, Bos J, Ducas L, Kiltz E, Lepoint T, Lyubashevsky V, Schanck J, Schwabe P, Seiler G, Stehl\u00e9 D (2019) CRYSTALS-Kyber (version 2.0)-algorithm specifications and supporting documentation (April 1, 2019). Submission to the NIST post-quantum project"},{"key":"209_CR5","unstructured":"Bai S, Ducas L, Kiltz E, Lepoint T, Lyubashevsky V, Schwabe P, Seiler G, Stehl\u00e9 D (2021) CRYSTALS-Dilithium: algorithm specifications and supporting documentation (version 3.1). NIST Post-Quantum Cryptography Standardization Round 3"},{"key":"209_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Beckwith L, Nguyen DT, Gaj K (2021) High-performance hardware implementation of CRYSTALS-Dilithium. In: International conference on field-programmable technology (ICFPT) 2021, Auckland. IEEE, pp 1\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/ICFPT52863.2021.9609917","DOI":"10.1109\/ICFPT52863.2021.9609917"},{"key":"209_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bernstein DJ, Hopwood D, H\u00fclsing A, Lange T, Niederhagen R, Papachristodoulou L, Schneider M, Schwabe P, Wilcox-O\u2019Hearn Z (2015) SPHINCS: practical stateless hash-based signatures. In: Advances in cryptology\u2013EUROCRYPT 2015\u201334th annual international conference on the theory and applications of cryptographic techniques, Sofia, Proceedings, Part I. Springer, vol 9056, pp 368\u2013397. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-662-46800-5_15","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-46800-5_15"},{"key":"209_CR8","unstructured":"Berzati A, Viera AC, Chartouni M, Madec S, Vergnaud D, Vigilant D (2023) A practical template attack on CRYSTALS-Dilithium. 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In: Cryptographic hardware and embedded systems\u2013CHES 2002, 4th international workshop, Redwood Shores, Revised Papers, 2523. Springer, pp 13\u201328. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/3-540-36400-5_3","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-36400-5_3"},{"key":"209_CR12","unstructured":"Ducas L, Kiltz E, Lepoint T, Lyubashevsky V, Schwabe P, Seiler G, Stehl\u00e9 D (2019) CRYSTALS-Dilithium: algorithm specifications and supporting documentation. Round-2 submission to the NIST PQC project 35"},{"key":"209_CR13","unstructured":"Ducas L, Lepoint T, Lyubashevsky V, Schwabe P, Seiler G, Stehl\u00e9 D (2017) CRYSTALS-Dilithium: digital signatures from module lattices. IACR Cryptology ePrint Archive 633"},{"key":"209_CR14","unstructured":"Ducas L, Lepoint T, Lyubashevsky V, Schwabe P, Seiler G, Stehl\u00e9 D (2018) Crystals\u2013Dilithium: digital Signatures from module lattices. 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IACR Cryptol. ePrint Arch. 2022(1410)"}],"container-title":["Cybersecurity"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s42400-024-00209-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s42400-024-00209-9\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s42400-024-00209-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,3]],"date-time":"2024-06-03T03:13:16Z","timestamp":1717384396000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/cybersecurity.springeropen.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s42400-024-00209-9"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,3]]},"references-count":22,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["209"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s42400-024-00209-9","relation":{},"ISSN":["2523-3246"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2523-3246","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,3]]},"assertion":[{"value":"16 October 2023","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"15 January 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"3 June 2024","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"21"}}