{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T00:04:53Z","timestamp":1762992293576,"version":"3.45.0"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762992000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762992000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62272077"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62272077"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005230","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Chongqing","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["cstc2021jcyj-msxmX0557"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["cstc2021jcyj-msxmX0557"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005230","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Dazhou Key Laboratory of Government Data Security","award":["ZSAQ202405"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZSAQ202405"]}]},{"name":"Science and Technology Research Program of Chongqing Municipal Education Commission","award":["KJQN202301528"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KJQN202301528"]}]},{"name":"Science and Technology Foundation Project of Guizhou Province","award":["QianKeHeJiChu-ZK[2022]YiBan329"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["QianKeHeJiChu-ZK[2022]YiBan329"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Cybersecurity"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Face recognition has been widely used in many fields and has become an important identification method. The templates in face recognition systems are associated with the facial biometric features of users, and once leaked, it will pose a persistent threat to the users. Therefore, it is particularly important to protect the security of templates. In this work, a novel face template protection scheme is proposed by combining chaotic map, error correction code and locality sensitive hashing. The scheme utilizes two sets of parameters: global keys and user keys, and the generated data consists of two parts: storage key and biometric template. When generating a template, the extracted feature vector is permuted by using chaotic sequences to disrupt the correlation between different dimensions. Then, the user keys are processed by error correction code to generate the storage key, which can be used to recover the user keys during authentication. Finally, the permuted vector is processed by the proposed random number based locality sensitive hashing to generate biometric template. Experimental results and theoretical analysis show that the scheme has good accuracy and security, and can effectively resist various attacks on the face template.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1186\/s42400-025-00373-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T00:02:10Z","timestamp":1762992130000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A face template protection scheme based on chaotic map, error correction code and locality sensitive hashing"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Jinyuan","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5247-043X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Kun","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Zhuo","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"373_CR1","unstructured":"Aberdeen face dataset (2024) http:\/\/pics.stir.ac.uk\/2D_face_sets.htm"},{"key":"373_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.32604\/iasc.2023.031386","volume":"36","author":"LA Abou Elazm","year":"2023","unstructured":"Abou Elazm LA, El-Shafai W, Ibrahim S et al (2023) Efficient hardware design of a secure cancellable biometric cryptosystem. Intell Autom Soft Comput 36:929\u2013955","journal-title":"Intell Autom Soft Comput"},{"key":"373_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30813","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-020-09529-7","volume":"79","author":"HI Ashiba","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ashiba HI, El-Samie FEA (2020) Implementation face based cancelable multi-biometric system. Multimed Tools Appl 79:30813\u201330838","journal-title":"Multimed Tools Appl"},{"key":"373_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bharathi RK, Mohana SD (2019) A review on biometric template security. Emerging Research in Electronics, Computer Science and Technology 589\u2013596","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-13-5802-9_53"},{"key":"373_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asoc.2021.107152","volume":"103","author":"Y Bi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bi Y, Xue B, Zhang M (2021) Multi-objective genetic programming for feature learning in face recognition. Appl Soft Comput 103:107152","journal-title":"Appl Soft Comput"},{"key":"373_CR7","first-page":"2254","volume":"67","author":"X Chen","year":"2020","unstructured":"Chen X, Cao W, Chao G, Hu W, Wu M (2020) A hybrid reducing error correcting output code for lithology identification. IEEE Trans Circuits Syst II Exp Briefs 67:2254\u20132258","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Circuits Syst II Exp Briefs"},{"key":"373_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2018.2837751","volume":"6","author":"D Choi","year":"2019","unstructured":"Choi D, Seo S-H, Oh Y-S, Kang Y (2019) Two-factor fuzzy commitment for unmanned iot devices security. IEEE Internet Things J 6:335\u2013348","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J"},{"key":"373_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui J, Teoh ABJ (2020) Deep index-of-maximum hashing for face template protection. 2020 5th International Conference on Computer and Communication Systems (ICCCS) 413\u2013418","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCCS49078.2020.9118594"},{"key":"373_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dehghani M, Moeini A, Kamandi A (2019) Experimental evaluation of local sensitive hashing functions for face recognition. 2019 5th International Conference on Web Research (ICWR) 184\u2013195","DOI":"10.1109\/ICWR.2019.8765276"},{"key":"373_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng H, Feng Z, Liu Y, et al (2020) Face recognition algorithm based on weighted intensity pcnn. 2020 Eighth International Conference on Advanced Cloud and Big Data (CBD) 207\u2013212","DOI":"10.1109\/CBD51900.2020.00045"},{"key":"373_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3442198","volume":"17","author":"X Dong","year":"2021","unstructured":"Dong X, Kim S, Jin Z et al (2021) Secure chaff-less fuzzy vault for face identification systems. ACM Trans Multimed Comput Commun Appl 17:1\u201322","journal-title":"ACM Trans Multimed Comput Commun Appl"},{"key":"373_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong X, Wong K, Jin Z, luc Dugelay J (2019) A cancellable face template scheme based on nonlinear multi-dimension spectral hashing. 2019 7th International Workshop on Biometrics and Forensics (IWBF) 1\u20136","DOI":"10.1109\/IWBF.2019.8739179"},{"key":"373_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eid MM, Mohamed MA (2017) A secure multimodal authentication system based on chaos cryptography and fuzzy fusion of iris and face. 2017 Intl Conf on Advanced Control Circuits Systems (ACCS) Systems & 2017 Intl Conf on New Paradigms in Electronics & Information Technology (PEIT) 163\u2013171","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCS-PEIT.2017.8303037"},{"key":"373_CR15","first-page":"1","volume":"10","author":"OS Faragallah","year":"2021","unstructured":"Faragallah OS, Naeem EA, El-Shafai W et al (2021) Efficient chaotic-baker-map-based cancelable face recognition. J Ambient Intell Humaniz Comput 10:1\u201339","journal-title":"J Ambient Intell Humaniz Comput"},{"key":"373_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3019","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2014.03.003","volume":"47","author":"YC Feng","year":"2014","unstructured":"Feng YC, Lim M-H, Yuen PC (2014) Masquerade attack on transform-based binary-template protection based on perceptron learning. Pattern Recognit 47:3019\u20133033","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit"},{"key":"373_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2023.103586","volume":"137","author":"T Gernot","year":"2024","unstructured":"Gernot T, Rosenberger C (2024) Robust biometric scheme against replay attacks using one-time biometric templates. Comput Secur 137:103586","journal-title":"Comput Secur"},{"key":"373_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2869","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2020.2977533","volume":"15","author":"L Ghammam","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ghammam L, Karabina K, Lacharme P, Thiry-Atighehchi K (2020) A cryptanalysis of two cancelable biometric schemes based on index-of-max hashing. IEEE Trans Inf Forensic Secur 15:2869\u20132880","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Inf Forensic Secur"},{"key":"373_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8573","DOI":"10.3390\/app11188573","volume":"11","author":"S Ghouzali","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ghouzali S, Nafea O, Wadood A, Hussain M (2021) Cancelable multimodal biometrics based on chaotic maps. Appl Sci 11:8573","journal-title":"Appl Sci"},{"key":"373_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.1007\/s00371-020-01873-x","volume":"37","author":"K Gupta","year":"2021","unstructured":"Gupta K, Walia GS, Sharma K (2021) Novel approach for multimodal feature fusion to generate cancelable biometric. Visual Comput 37:1401\u20131413","journal-title":"Visual Comput"},{"key":"373_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han D, Li Y, Denzler J (2024) Privacy-preserving face recognition in hybrid frequency-color domain. arXiv preprint arXiv:2401.13386","DOI":"10.5220\/0012373200003660"},{"key":"373_CR21","unstructured":"Huang GB, Mattar M, Berg T, Learned-Miller E (2008) Labeled faces in the wild: a database forstudying face recognition in unconstrained environments. Proceedings of the Workshop on faces in'Real-Life'Images: detection, alignment, and recognition"},{"key":"373_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2017.2753172","volume":"13","author":"Z Jin","year":"2017","unstructured":"Jin Z, Yen-Lung Lai JYH, Kim S, Teoh ABJ (2017) Ranking based locality sensitive hashing enabled cancelable biometrics: index-of-max hashing. IEEE Trans Inf Forensic Secur 13:393\u2013407","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Inf Forensic Secur"},{"key":"373_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2018.2855669","volume":"14","author":"H Kaur","year":"2019","unstructured":"Kaur H, Khanna P (2019) Random distance method for generating unimodal and multimodal cancelable biometric features. IEEE Trans Inf Forensic Secur 14:709\u2013719","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Inf Forensic Secur"},{"key":"373_CR24","first-page":"1755","volume":"10","author":"DE King","year":"2009","unstructured":"King DE (2009) Dlib-ml: a machine learning toolkit. J Mach Learn Res 10:1755\u20131758","journal-title":"J Mach Learn Res"},{"key":"373_CR25","unstructured":"Kolberg J, Drozdowski P, Gomez-Barrero M, Rathgeb C, Busch C (2020) Efficiency analysis of post-quantum-secure face template protection schemes based on homomorphic encryption. 2020 International Conference of the Biometrics Special Interest Group (BIOSIG) 1\u20138"},{"key":"373_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1377","DOI":"10.1080\/02699930903485076","volume":"24","author":"O Langner","year":"2010","unstructured":"Langner O, Dotsch R, Bijlstra G et al (2010) Presentation and validation of the radboud faces database. Cogn Emot 24:1377\u20131388","journal-title":"Cogn Emot"},{"key":"373_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4615","DOI":"10.1007\/s11071-021-06576-z","volume":"104","author":"J Liu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Liu J, Wang Y, Liu Z, Zhu H (2021) A chaotic image encryption algorithm based on coupled piecewise sine map and sensitive diffusion structure. Nonlinear Dyn 104:4615\u20134633","journal-title":"Nonlinear Dyn"},{"key":"373_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.3390\/e25020378","volume":"25","author":"J Liu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Liu J, Wang Y, Wang K, Liu Z (2023) An irreversible and revocable template generation scheme based on chaotic system. Entropy 25:378","journal-title":"Entropy"},{"key":"373_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu Y, Jourabloo A, Liu X (2018) Learning deep models for face anti-spoofing: binary or auxiliary supervision. 31st IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) 389\u2013398","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2018.00048"},{"key":"373_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1188","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2018.2827389","volume":"41","author":"G Mai","year":"2018","unstructured":"Mai G, Cao K, Yuen PC, Jain AK (2018) On the reconstruction of face images from deep face templates. IEEE Trans Pattern Anal Mach Intell 41:1188\u20131202","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Pattern Anal Mach Intell"},{"key":"373_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2020.01.050","volume":"152","author":"M Masud","year":"2020","unstructured":"Masud M, Muhammad G, Alhumyani H et al (2020) Deep learning-based intelligent face recognition in iot-cloud environment. Comput Commun 152:215\u2013222","journal-title":"Comput Commun"},{"key":"373_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mignon A, Jurie, F (2013) Reconstructing faces from their signatures using rbf regression. British Machine Vision Conference 2013 103.1\u2013103.12","DOI":"10.5244\/C.27.103"},{"key":"373_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compeleceng.2018.01.029","volume":"72","author":"S Nazari","year":"2018","unstructured":"Nazari S, Moin M-S, Kanan HR (2018) Securing templates in a face recognition system using error-correcting output code and chaos theory. Comput Electr Eng 72:644\u2013659","journal-title":"Comput Electr Eng"},{"key":"373_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pandey RK, Zhou Y, Kota BU, Govindaraju V (2016) Deep secure encoding for face template protection. 2016 IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition workshops (CVPRW) 77\u201383","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPRW.2016.17"},{"key":"373_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raja KB, Raghavendra R, Busch C (2018) Towards protected and cancelable multi-spectral face templates using feature fusion and kernalized hashing. 2018 21st International Conference on Information Fusion (FUSION) 2098\u20132106","DOI":"10.23919\/ICIF.2018.8455809"},{"key":"373_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.knosys.2021.107159","volume":"227","author":"H Ren","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ren H, Sun L, Guo J, Han C, Wu F (2021) Finger vein recognition system with template protection based on convolutional neural network. Knowl-Based Syst 227:107159","journal-title":"Knowl-Based Syst"},{"key":"373_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105263","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2999656","volume":"8","author":"A Sardar","year":"2020","unstructured":"Sardar A, Umer S, Pero C, Nappl M (2020) A novel cancelable facehashing technique based on non-invertible transformation with encryption and decryption template. IEEE Access 8:105263\u2013105277","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"373_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3534122","volume":"19","author":"A Sardar","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sardar A, Umer S, Rout RK et al (2023) A secure face recognition for iot-enabled healthcare system. ACM Trans Sen Netw 19:1\u201323","journal-title":"ACM Trans Sen Netw"},{"key":"373_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2023.08.011","volume":"174","author":"A Sardar","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sardar A, Umer S, Rout RK, Pero C (2023) Face recognition system with hybrid template protection scheme for cyber-physical-social services. Pattern Recognit Lett 174:17\u201324","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit Lett"},{"key":"373_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27721","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-020-09197-7","volume":"79","author":"A Sarkar","year":"2020","unstructured":"Sarkar A, Singh BK (2020) A review on performance, security and various biometric template protection schemes for biometric authentication systems. Multimed Tools Appl 79:27721\u201327776","journal-title":"Multimed Tools Appl"},{"key":"373_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simoens K, Tuyls P, Preneel B (2009) Privacy weaknesses in biometric sketches, 188\u2013203","DOI":"10.1109\/SP.2009.24"},{"key":"373_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"92735","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3092646","volume":"9","author":"F Vakhshiteh","year":"2021","unstructured":"Vakhshiteh F, Nickabadi A, Ramachandra R (2021) Adversarial attacks against face recognition: a comprehensive study. IEEE Access 9:92735\u201392756","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"373_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang Z, Wang H, Jin S, et al (2023) Privacy-preserving adversarial facial features, 8212\u20138221","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR52729.2023.00794"},{"key":"373_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14477","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-020-10234-8","volume":"80","author":"Z Xu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Xu Z, Shao Z, Shang Y et al (2021) Fusing structure and color features for cancelable face recognition. Multimed Tools Appl 80:14477\u201314494","journal-title":"Multimed Tools Appl"},{"key":"373_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chaos.2023.114440","volume":"179","author":"F Yu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yu F, Kong X, Yao W et al (2024) Dynamics analysis, synchronization and fpga implementation of multiscroll hopfield neural networks with non-polynomial memristor. Chaos Soliton Fract 179:114440","journal-title":"Chaos Soliton Fract"},{"key":"373_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neunet.2024.106904","volume":"182","author":"F Yu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Yu F, Lin Y, Yao W et al (2025) Multiscroll hopfield neural network with extreme multistability and its application in video encryption for iiot. Neural Netw 182:106904","journal-title":"Neural Netw"},{"key":"373_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TETCI.2024.3425282","author":"J Zhu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhu J, Jin J, Chen C et al (2024) A new-type zeroing neural network model and its application in dynamic cryptography. IEEE Trans Emerg Topics Comput Intell. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TETCI.2024.3425282","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Emerg Topics Comput Intell"},{"key":"373_CR48","unstructured":"Zuras D, Cowlishaw M, Aiken A et al (2008) Ieee standard for floating-point arithmetic. IEEE Std. 754-2008, 1\u201370"}],"container-title":["Cybersecurity"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s42400-025-00373-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s42400-025-00373-6\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s42400-025-00373-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T00:02:14Z","timestamp":1762992134000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/cybersecurity.springeropen.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s42400-025-00373-6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["373"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s42400-025-00373-6","relation":{},"ISSN":["2523-3246"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2523-3246","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]},"assertion":[{"value":"5 December 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"9 February 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"13 November 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no conflict of interest.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"84"}}