{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T15:31:51Z","timestamp":1786375911294,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786320000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786320000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["No.82470809"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No.82470809"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"the general project of the Natural Science Foundation of Shanxi Province","award":["No. 202503021211298"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. 202503021211298"]}]},{"name":"the scientific research project of Shanxi Provincial Health Commission","award":["No. 2022073"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. 2022073"]}]},{"name":"the open project of the Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of the Ministry of Education of China\/Health Commission of China at Fudan University","award":["No. FDMV-2021004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. FDMV-2021004"]}]},{"name":"the General Teaching Reform Innovation Project of Shanxi Province Higher Education Institutions of Shanxi Provincial Department of Education","award":["No. J20230474"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. J20230474"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Discover Nano"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Interstitial Cystitis\/Bladder Pain Syndrome (IC\/BPS) is a complex chronic inflammatory disease involving mucosal barrier defects, neurogenic inflammation, mast cell activation, and tissue remodeling. Current diagnosis lacks objective biomarkers, relying instead on symptom assessment and exclusion of confusable diseases. Cystoscopy is recommended for identifying Hunner lesions per ESSIC\/AUA guidelines, and first-line intravesical GAG replacement therapies only achieve sustained response rates of 20\u201338% at 12\u00a0months. Medical-engineering integration and materials innovations propel IC management toward multi-scale regulation and intelligent repair. This article proposes intelligent materials and systems to advance IC from stepwise diagnosis to an integrated \"sensing\u2013feedback\u2013execution\" closed loop. At the diagnostic level, it integrates medical phenotyping with engineering multidimensional detection to construct a synergistic system of subjective symptoms, objective molecules, and physical function: attomolar long non-coding RNA(lncRNA) detection via CRISPR-graphene transistors, glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) quantification with\n                    <jats:sup>13<\/jats:sup>\n                    C-FNDs, and real-time bladder monitoring with flexible electrodes and wireless sensing. At the therapeutic level, centering on targeted delivery, dynamic repair, functional remodeling, it integrates four pathways: inflammation-responsive engineered bacteria; DNA nanocages and dual-responsive hydrogels for precise release; bioprinted patches and digital twin scaffolds for personalized repair; and trimodal combination therapy for mucosa, inflammation, and fibrosis. It further envisions Material Intelligence Agent systems medicine integrating nanosensors, quantum computing, and micro-nanorobots to construct a cross-scale diagnostic and therapeutic closed loop, with dynamic individualized intervention via digital twins. This paper provides a systematic technological pathway for precision IC management and a transferable medical-engineering integration paradigm for chronic inflammatory diseases.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1186\/s11671-026-04857-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T15:22:45Z","timestamp":1786375365000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Toward therapnostic integration as a new paradigm for precision management of interstitial cystitis driven by medical-engineering convergence"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Weilun","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Minli","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuxin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Weibing","family":"Shuang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5999-8245","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lei","family":"Pang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]]},"reference":[{"issue":"32","key":"4857_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202210035","volume":"35","author":"I Tzouvadaki","year":"2023","unstructured":"Tzouvadaki I, Gkoupidenis P, Vassanelli S, et al. Interfacing biology and electronics with memristive materials. Adv Mater. 2023;35(32):e2210035. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/adma.202210035.","journal-title":"Adv Mater"},{"key":"4857_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232314594","author":"J Li","year":"2022","unstructured":"Li J, Yi X, Ai J. Broaden horizons: the advancement of interstitial cystitis\/bladder pain syndrome. Int J Mol Sci. 2022. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms232314594.","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"4857_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40122-023-00559-1","author":"S Poletajew","year":"2023","unstructured":"Poletajew S, Brz\u00f3zka MM, Krajewski W, et al. Glycosaminoglycan replacement therapy with intravesical instillations of combined hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfate in patients with recurrent cystitis, post-radiation cystitis and bladder pain syndrome: a narrative review. Pain Ther. 2023. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40122-023-00559-1.","journal-title":"Pain Ther"},{"key":"4857_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/bios14020084","author":"J Xu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Xu J, Zhang P, Chen Y. Surface plasmon resonance biosensors: a review of molecular imaging with high spatial resolution. Biosensors (Basel). 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bios14020084.","journal-title":"Biosensors (Basel)"},{"issue":"1","key":"4857_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-08559-6","volume":"10","author":"L Luo","year":"2019","unstructured":"Luo L, Yang X, Liu X, et al. Ultrafast manipulation of topologically enhanced surface transport driven by mid-infrared and terahertz pulses in Bi2Se3. Nat Commun. 2019;10(1):607. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41467-019-08559-6.","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"1","key":"4857_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-12197-2","volume":"12","author":"MSR Abid","year":"2022","unstructured":"Abid MSR, Qiu H, Tripp BA, et al. Peptidomics analysis reveals changes in small urinary peptides in patients with interstitial cystitis\/bladder pain syndrome. Sci Rep. 2022;12(1):8289. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-022-12197-2.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"5","key":"4857_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1483","DOI":"10.1021\/acsphotonics.1c01874","volume":"9","author":"MS Rider","year":"2022","unstructured":"Rider MS, Buend\u00eda \u00c1, Abujetas DR, et al. Advances and prospects in topological nanoparticle photonics. ACS Photonics. 2022;9(5):1483\u201399. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acsphotonics.1c01874.","journal-title":"ACS Photonics"},{"issue":"12","key":"4857_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6527","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.7b00627","volume":"89","author":"MD Pham","year":"2017","unstructured":"Pham MD, Epperla CP, Hsieh CL, et al. Glycosaminoglycans-specific cell targeting and imaging using fluorescent nanodiamonds coated with viral envelope proteins. Anal Chem. 2017;89(12):6527\u201334. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acs.analchem.7b00627.","journal-title":"Anal Chem"},{"issue":"4","key":"4857_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1016\/j.urology.2008.01.028","volume":"72","author":"R Soler","year":"2008","unstructured":"Soler R, Bruschini H, Martins JR, et al. Urinary glycosaminoglycans as biomarker for urothelial injury: is it possible to discriminate damage from recovery? Urology. 2008;72(4):937\u201342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.urology.2008.01.028.","journal-title":"Urology"},{"issue":"1","key":"4857_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-023-42417-w","volume":"14","author":"A Goyal","year":"2023","unstructured":"Goyal A, Bauer J, Hey J, et al. DNMT and HDAC inhibition induces immunogenic neoantigens from human endogenous retroviral element-derived transcripts. Nat Commun. 2023;14(1):6731. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41467-023-42417-w.","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"4857_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30020242","author":"H Ishida","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ishida H, Ito T, Kuzuya A. Molecular origami: designing functional molecules of the future. Molecules. 2025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules30020242.","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"issue":"8","key":"4857_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5278","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.9b00073","volume":"91","author":"Y Shan","year":"2019","unstructured":"Shan Y, Zhou X, Huang R, et al. High-fidelity and rapid quantification of miRNA combining crRNA programmability and CRISPR\/Cas13a trans-cleavage activity. Anal Chem. 2019;91(8):5278\u201385. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acs.analchem.9b00073.","journal-title":"Anal Chem"},{"issue":"39","key":"4857_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9905","DOI":"10.1039\/d4tb00514g","volume":"12","author":"P Ray","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ray P, Sedigh A, Confeld M, et al. Design and evaluation of nanoscale materials with programmed responsivity towards epigenetic enzymes. J Mater Chem B. 2024;12(39):9905\u201320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039\/d4tb00514g.","journal-title":"J Mater Chem B"},{"issue":"5","key":"4857_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/chemistry7050165","volume":"7","author":"R Niu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Niu R, Tao M, Chao J. The application of DNA origami in biosensing. Chemistry. 2025;7(5):165. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/chemistry7050165.","journal-title":"Chemistry"},{"issue":"1","key":"4857_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40820-025-01730-3","volume":"17","author":"M Sun","year":"2025","unstructured":"Sun M, Yu Z, Wang S, et al. Universal amplification-free RNA detection by integrating CRISPR-Cas10 with aptameric graphene field-effect transistor. Nano-Micro Lett. 2025;17(1):242. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40820-025-01730-3.","journal-title":"Nano-Micro Lett"},{"issue":"9","key":"4857_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tips.2022.02.002","volume":"43","author":"JP Lynch","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lynch JP, Goers L, Lesser CF. Emerging strategies for engineering Escherichia coli Nissle 1917-based therapeutics. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2022;43(9):772\u201386. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tips.2022.02.002.","journal-title":"Trends Pharmacol Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"4857_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-13336-6","volume":"10","author":"P Praveschotinunt","year":"1917","unstructured":"Praveschotinunt P, Duraj-Thatte AM, Gelfat I, et al. Engineered E. coli Nissle 1917 for the delivery of matrix-tethered therapeutic domains to the gut. Nat Commun. 1917;10(1):5580. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41467-019-13336-6.","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"4857_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micres.2023.127414","volume":"273","author":"X Zeng","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zeng X, Zou Y, Zheng J, et al. Quorum sensing-mediated microbial interactions: mechanisms, applications, challenges and perspectives. Microbiol Res. 2023;273:127414. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.micres.2023.127414.","journal-title":"Microbiol Res"},{"issue":"24","key":"4857_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.202203115","volume":"61","author":"S Wang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wang S, Kai M, Duan Y, et al. Membrane cholesterol depletion enhances enzymatic activity of cell-membrane-coated metal-organic-framework nanoparticles. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2022;61(24):e202203115. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/anie.202203115.","journal-title":"Angew Chem Int Ed Engl"},{"issue":"99","key":"4857_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13676","DOI":"10.1039\/d2cc05131a","volume":"58","author":"S Dutta","year":"2022","unstructured":"Dutta S, More YD, Fajal S, et al. Ionic metal-organic frameworks (iMOFs): progress and prospects as ionic functional materials. Chem Commun (Camb). 2022;58(99):13676\u201398. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039\/d2cc05131a.","journal-title":"Chem Commun (Camb)"},{"key":"4857_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2025.123840","volume":"328","author":"Z Lin","year":"2026","unstructured":"Lin Z, Wang W, Liu D, et al. Nerve growth factor-targeting nanocluster-antibody-drug conjugates for intravesical precision theranostics of interstitial cystitis. Biomaterials. 2026;328:123840. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2025.123840.","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"issue":"39","key":"4857_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.202511909","volume":"64","author":"P Hao","year":"2025","unstructured":"Hao P, Sun X, Niu L, et al. Programmable DNA nanocages enable adaptive spatiotemporal organization of biomimetic organelle networks. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2025;64(39):e202511909. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/anie.202511909.","journal-title":"Angew Chem Int Ed Engl"},{"key":"4857_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15101383","author":"Y Hou","year":"2025","unstructured":"Hou Y, Yu X. The convergence of biology and material science: biomolecule-driven smart drug delivery systems. Biomolecules. 2025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biom15101383.","journal-title":"Biomolecules"},{"key":"4857_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2022.12.002","volume":"157","author":"X Song","year":"2022","unstructured":"Song X, Li F, Tian F, et al. Upconversion nanoparticle-based optogenetic nanosystem for photodynamic therapy and cascade gene therapy. Acta Biomater. 2022;157:538\u201350. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.actbio.2022.12.002.","journal-title":"Acta Biomater"},{"issue":"3","key":"4857_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1017\/S1431927610000255","volume":"16","author":"S Xie","year":"2010","unstructured":"Xie S, Sterbinsky GE, Wessels BW, et al. Defect and interfacial structure of heteroepitaxial Fe3O4\/BaTiO3 bilayers. Microsc Microanal. 2010;16(3):300\u20135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S1431927610000255.","journal-title":"Microsc Microanal"},{"key":"4857_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioactmat.2024.03.033","volume":"37","author":"J Lai","year":"2024","unstructured":"Lai J, Liu Y, Lu G, et al. 4D bioprinting of programmed dynamic tissues. Bioact Mater. 2024;37:348\u201377. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bioactmat.2024.03.033.","journal-title":"Bioact Mater"},{"issue":"3","key":"4857_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202512531","volume":"38","author":"P Qiu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Qiu P, Ouyang Y, Liu S, et al. Environmental response temporal release injectable hydrogel for controlled growth factor release to enhance inflammatory periodontal bone defect regeneration. Adv Mater. 2025;38(3):e12531. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/adma.202512531.","journal-title":"Adv Mater"},{"issue":"4","key":"4857_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.1021\/bm3019856","volume":"14","author":"G Camci-Unal","year":"2013","unstructured":"Camci-Unal G, Cuttica D, Annabi N, et al. Synthesis and characterization of hybrid hyaluronic acid-gelatin hydrogels. Biomacromol. 2013;14(4):1085\u201392. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/bm3019856.","journal-title":"Biomacromol"},{"issue":"3","key":"4857_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.a.37643","volume":"112","author":"W Guo","year":"2024","unstructured":"Guo W, Liu H, Zhang J, et al. Preparation and characterization of a novel composite acellular matrix\/hyaluronic acid thermosensitive hydrogel for interstitial cystitis\/bladder pain syndrome. J Biomed Mater Res A. 2024;112(3):449\u201362. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/jbm.a.37643.","journal-title":"J Biomed Mater Res A"},{"issue":"1","key":"4857_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-45710-4","volume":"15","author":"C Quintard","year":"2024","unstructured":"Quintard C, Tubbs E, Jonsson G, et al. A microfluidic platform integrating functional vascularized organoids-on-chip. Nat Commun. 2024;15(1):1452. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41467-024-45710-4.","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"key":"4857_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/bios16010016","author":"MS Ibrahim","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ibrahim MS, Kim M. Artificial intelligence-aided microfluidic cell culture systems. Biosensors. 2025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bios16010016.","journal-title":"Biosensors"},{"issue":"2","key":"4857_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1007\/s10456-024-09905-z","volume":"27","author":"T Yu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yu T, Yang Q, Peng B, et al. Vascularized organoid-on-a-chip: design, imaging, and analysis. Angiogenesis. 2024;27(2):147\u201372. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10456-024-09905-z.","journal-title":"Angiogenesis"},{"issue":"4","key":"4857_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1093\/biolre\/ioz214","volume":"102","author":"XF Ma","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ma XF, Zhao PN, Wakle-Prabagaran M, et al. Microelectrode array analysis of mouse uterine smooth muscle electrical activity. Biol Reprod. 2020;102(4):935\u201342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/biolre\/ioz214.","journal-title":"Biol Reprod"},{"key":"4857_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5090\/ad5ac0","author":"KT Kroll","year":"2024","unstructured":"Kroll KT, Homan KA, Uzel SGM, et al. A perfusable, vascularized kidney organoid-on-chip model. Biofabrication. 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/1758-5090\/ad5ac0.","journal-title":"Biofabrication"},{"issue":"1","key":"4857_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-28093-7","volume":"8","author":"D Choi","year":"2018","unstructured":"Choi D, Han J-Y, Shin JH, et al. Downregulation of WNT11 is associated with bladder tissue fibrosis in patients with interstitial cystitis\/bladder pain syndrome without Hunner lesion. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):9782. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-018-28093-7.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"2","key":"4857_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xpro.2025.103809","volume":"6","author":"E Kim","year":"2025","unstructured":"Kim E, Ramos Figueroa AL, Schrock M, et al. A guide for nanomechanical characterization of soft matter via AFM: from mode selection to data reporting. STAR Protoc. 2025;6(2):103809. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.xpro.2025.103809.","journal-title":"STAR Protoc"},{"issue":"10","key":"4857_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3304","DOI":"10.1039\/D4TB02494J","volume":"13","author":"LY Sujeeun","year":"2025","unstructured":"Sujeeun LY, Phul IC, Goonoo N, et al. Predicting inflammatory response of biomimetic nanofibre scaffolds for tissue regeneration using machine learning and graph theory. J Mater Chem B. 2025;13(10):3304\u201318. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039\/D4TB02494J.","journal-title":"J Mater Chem B"},{"issue":"97","key":"4857_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.adp3593","volume":"9","author":"H Han","year":"2024","unstructured":"Han H, Ma X, Deng W, et al. Imaging-guided bioresorbable acoustic hydrogel microrobots. Sci Robot. 2024;9(97):eadp3593. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/scirobotics.adp3593.","journal-title":"Sci Robot"},{"issue":"6","key":"4857_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202001681","volume":"10","author":"KT Nguyen","year":"2021","unstructured":"Nguyen KT, Go G, Jin Z, et al. A magnetically guided self-rolled microrobot for targeted drug delivery, real-time X-ray imaging, and microrobot retrieval. Adv Healthc Mater. 2021;10(6):2001681. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/adhm.202001681.","journal-title":"Adv Healthc Mater"},{"key":"4857_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat3776","author":"S Mura","year":"2013","unstructured":"Mura S, Nicolas J, Couvreur P. Stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for drug delivery. Nat Mater. 2013. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nmat3776.","journal-title":"Nat Mater"},{"issue":"3","key":"4857_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1038\/s43588-024-00607-6","volume":"4","author":"R Laubenbacher","year":"2024","unstructured":"Laubenbacher R, Mehrad B, Shmulevich I, et al. Digital twins in medicine. Nat Comput Sci. 2024;4(3):184\u201391. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s43588-024-00607-6.","journal-title":"Nat Comput Sci"},{"issue":"9","key":"4857_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.a.37973","volume":"113","author":"H Liu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Liu H, Guo W, Zhang J, et al. Therapeutic effect of a composite acellular matrix\/hyaluronic acid thermosensitive hydrogel for the interstitial cystitis\/bladder pain syndrome in a rat model. J Biomed Mater Res A. 2025;113(9):e37973. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/jbm.a.37973.","journal-title":"J Biomed Mater Res A"},{"key":"4857_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinorgbio.2025.112982","volume":"271","author":"MR Batten","year":"2025","unstructured":"Batten MR, Guti\u00e9rrez-Orgaz JA, Maturi FE, Carlos LD, Oliveira H, Hernando J, et al. Near-infrared activation of upconversion platforms for non-redox-dependent release of Pt (II). J Inorg Biochem. 2025;271:112982. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jinorgbio.2025.112982.","journal-title":"J Inorg Biochem"},{"key":"4857_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymer.2025.128314","volume":"326","author":"X Wang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Wang X, Xu C, Liao Y, Wang R, Bi Z, Law WC, et al. Smart upconversion nanocapsules: Harnessing photodegradation and glutathione responsiveness of polymers for controlled release of Payloads. Polymer. 2025;326:128314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.polymer.2025.128314.","journal-title":"Polymer"},{"key":"4857_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2025.114223","author":"Y Cai","year":"2025","unstructured":"Cai Y, Li D, Ling Y, Jiang H, Liu H. Construction of triple-responsive nanogel embedded with upconversion nanoparticles via microemulsion polymerization for near-infrared-controlled drug delivery. Eur Polym J. 2025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2025.114223.","journal-title":"Eur Polym J"},{"key":"4857_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2022.121453","volume":"283","author":"M Prieto","year":"2022","unstructured":"Prieto M, Us\u00f3n L, Garcia-Salinas S, et al. Light activated pulsatile drug delivery for prolonged peripheral nerve block. Biomaterials. 2022;283:121453. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2022.121453.","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"issue":"1","key":"4857_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00345-025-05683-5","volume":"43","author":"A Aamir","year":"2025","unstructured":"Aamir A, Siddiqui M. Integration of brain-computer interfaces with sacral nerve stimulation: a vision for closed-loop, volitional control of bladder function in neurogenic patients through real-time cortical signal modulation and peripheral neuro-stimulation. World J Urol. 2025;43(1):301. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00345-025-05683-5.","journal-title":"World J Urol"},{"issue":"11","key":"4857_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3203","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2020.2979475","volume":"67","author":"D Ding","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ding D, Lu Y, Zhao R, et al. Evaluation of durability of transparent graphene electrodes fabricated on different flexible substrates for chronic in vivo experiments. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 2020;67(11):3203\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TBME.2020.2979475.","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Biomed Eng"},{"issue":"1","key":"4857_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1038\/s41378-025-00873-y","volume":"11","author":"M Yuan","year":"2025","unstructured":"Yuan M, Li F, Xue F, et al. Transparent, flexible graphene-ITO-based neural microelectrodes for simultaneous electrophysiology recording and calcium imaging of intracortical neural activity in freely moving mice. Microsyst Nanoeng. 2025;11(1):32. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41378-025-00873-y.","journal-title":"Microsyst Nanoeng"},{"key":"4857_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2025.123118","volume":"318","author":"KK Das","year":"2025","unstructured":"Das KK, Pandey R, Dubey AK. Piezo-electronics: a paradigm for self-powered bioelectronics. Biomaterials. 2025;318:123118. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2025.123118.","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"4857_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/mi13122065","author":"T Kamilya","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kamilya T, Park J. Highly sensitive self-powered biomedical applications using triboelectric nanogenerator. Micromachines. 2022. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mi13122065.","journal-title":"Micromachines"},{"issue":"2","key":"4857_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1097\/MOU.0000000000001158","volume":"34","author":"J Tornic","year":"2023","unstructured":"Tornic J, Engeler D. Latest insights into the pathophysiology of bladder pain syndrome\/interstitial cystitis. Curr Opin Urol. 2023;34(2):84\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/MOU.0000000000001158.","journal-title":"Curr Opin Urol"},{"key":"4857_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"0758","DOI":"10.34133\/research.0758","volume":"8","author":"B Jin","year":"2025","unstructured":"Jin B, Wang Z, Wang T, et al. Memristor-based artificial neural networks for hardware neuromorphic computing. Research (Wash D C). 2025;8:0758. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.34133\/research.0758.","journal-title":"Research (Wash D C)."},{"issue":"1","key":"4857_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1007\/s11548-024-03260-6","volume":"20","author":"S Kolb","year":"2024","unstructured":"Kolb S, Madden A, Kr\u00f6ger N, et al. 6G in medical robotics: development of network allocation strategies for a telerobotic examination system. Int J Comput Assist Radiol Surg. 2024;20(1):167\u201378. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11548-024-03260-6.","journal-title":"Int J Comput Assist Radiol Surg"},{"issue":"1","key":"4857_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-022-00640-7","volume":"5","author":"G Coorey","year":"2022","unstructured":"Coorey G, Figtree GA, Fletcher DF, et al. The health digital twin to tackle cardiovascular disease\u2014a review of an emerging interdisciplinary field. NPJ Digit Med. 2022;5(1):126. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41746-022-00640-7.","journal-title":"NPJ Digit Med"},{"issue":"6","key":"4857_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1111\/iju.14229","volume":"27","author":"Y Akiyama","year":"2020","unstructured":"Akiyama Y, Luo Y, Hanno PM, et al. Interstitial cystitis\/bladder pain syndrome: the evolving landscape, animal models and future perspectives. Int J Urol. 2020;27(6):491\u2013503. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/iju.14229.","journal-title":"Int J Urol"}],"container-title":["Discover Nano"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s11671-026-04857-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s11671-026-04857-3","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s11671-026-04857-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T15:22:47Z","timestamp":1786375367000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s11671-026-04857-3"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["4857"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s11671-026-04857-3","relation":{},"ISSN":["2731-9229"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2731-9229","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]]},"assertion":[{"value":"14 December 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"4 August 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"10 August 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Not applicable. This is a review article and does not involve direct ethical considerations requiring approval.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent for publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable. This is a review article and does not involve direct participation of human subjects.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","label":"Patient consent","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"385"}}