{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T00:34:23Z","timestamp":1750206863541,"version":"3.37.3"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,16]],"date-time":"2020-04-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1586995200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,16]],"date-time":"2020-04-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1586995200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000200","name":"USAID","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["AID-OAA-A-11-00048"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AID-OAA-A-11-00048"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000200","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010269","name":"Wellcome Trust","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["201900\/Z\/16\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["201900\/Z\/16\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010269","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Infect Dis"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>The control of lymphatic filariasis (LF) caused by <jats:italic>Wuchereria bancrofti<\/jats:italic> in the Central African Region has been hampered by the presence of <jats:italic>Loa loa<\/jats:italic> due to severe adverse events that arise in the treatment with ivermectin. The immunochromatographic test (ICT) cards used for mapping LF demonstrated cross-reactivity with <jats:italic>L. loa<\/jats:italic> and posed the problem of delineating the LF map. To verify LF endemicity in forest areas of Cameroon where mass drug administration (MDA) has not been ongoing, we used the recently developed strategy that combined serology, microscopy and molecular techniques.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>This study was carried out in 124 communities in 31 health districts (HDs) where <jats:italic>L. loa<\/jats:italic> is present. At least 125 persons per site were screened. Diurnal blood samples were investigated for circulating filarial antigen (CFA) by FTS and for <jats:italic>L. loa<\/jats:italic> microfilariae (mf) using TBF. FTS positive individuals were further subjected to night blood collection for detecting <jats:italic>W. bancrofti<\/jats:italic>. qPCR was used to detect DNA of the parasites.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Overall, 14,446 individuals took part in this study, 233 participants tested positive with FTS in 29 HDs, with positivity rates ranging from 0.0 to 8.2%. No <jats:italic>W. bancrofti<\/jats:italic> mf was found in the night blood of any individuals but <jats:italic>L. loa<\/jats:italic> mf were found in both day and night blood of participants who were FTS positive. Also, qPCR revealed that no <jats:italic>W. bancrofti<\/jats:italic> but <jats:italic>L.loa<\/jats:italic> DNA was found with dry bloodspot. Positive FTS results were strongly associated with high <jats:italic>L. loa<\/jats:italic> mf load. Similarly, a strong positive association was observed between FTS positivity and <jats:italic>L loa<\/jats:italic> prevalence.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Using a combination of parasitological and molecular tools, we were unable to find evidence of <jats:italic>W. bancrofti<\/jats:italic> presence in the 31 HDs, but <jats:italic>L. loa<\/jats:italic> instead. Therefore, LF is not endemic and LF MDA is not required in these districts.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-020-05009-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,16]],"date-time":"2020-04-16T15:04:48Z","timestamp":1587049488000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Mapping lymphatic filariasis in Loa loa endemic health districts na\u00efve for ivermectin mass administration and situated in the forested zone of Cameroon"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Andrew A.","family":"Beng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mathias E.","family":"Esum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kebede","family":"Deribe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Abdel J.","family":"Njouendou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Patrick W. C.","family":"Ndongmo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Raphael A.","family":"Abong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jerome","family":"Fru","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fanny F.","family":"Fombad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gordon T.","family":"Nchanji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Glory","family":"Amambo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Narcisse T. V.","family":"Gandjui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Benjamin","family":"Biholong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Georges","family":"Nko\u2019Ayissi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Patrick","family":"Mbia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Julie","family":"Akame","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Peter I.","family":"Enyong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Steven D.","family":"Reid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jean J.","family":"Tougoue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yaobi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Samuel","family":"Wanji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,16]]},"reference":[{"issue":"6","key":"5009_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1142","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.14-0358","volume":"91","author":"DK Bakajika","year":"2014","unstructured":"Bakajika DK, Nigo MM, Lotsima JP, Masikini GA, Fischer K, Lloyd MM, Weil GJ, Fischer PU. Filarial antigenemia and Loa loa night blood microfilaremia in an area without bancroftian filariasis in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2014;91(6):1142\u20138.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"5009_CR2","unstructured":"Boussinesq M. La filariose lymphatique au Cameroun: \u00e9tat des connaissances. , . In., vol. 32. Bulletin de Liaison et de Documentation-OCEAC; 1999: 7\u201312."},{"key":"5009_CR3","unstructured":"Boussinesq M, Kamgno J, S. P. Treatment of Loa patients: pre- and post- treatment loamicrofilarial levels and SAEs\u2014experience in Cameroon. In., vol. 63rd annual meeting. Sheraton New Orleans Hotel, New Orleans, LA USA: ASTMH; 2014."},{"key":"5009_CR4","unstructured":"WHO: Lymphatic filariasis. World Health Organization Fact Sheet 102. 2014."},{"key":"5009_CR5","unstructured":"WHO: Lymphatic filariasis. World Health Organization Fact Sheet of 2nd March 2020. In.; 2020."},{"issue":"5","key":"5009_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2006.03.005","volume":"22","author":"E Michael","year":"2006","unstructured":"Michael E, Malecela-Lazaro MN, Kabali C, Snow LC, Kazura JW. Mathematical models and lymphatic filariasis control: endpoints and optimal interventions. Trends Parasitol. 2006;22(5):226\u201333.","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"key":"5009_CR7","unstructured":"WHO: World Health Organization: Global programme to eliminate lymphatic filariasis: progress report, 2011. In., vol. 87. Weekly Epidemiol Rec, ; 2012: 346\u2013356."},{"issue":"9","key":"5009_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0004001","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004001","volume":"9","author":"HC Nana-Djeunga","year":"2015","unstructured":"Nana-Djeunga HC, Tchatchueng-Mbougua JB, Bopda J, Mbickmen-Tchana S, Elong-Kana N, Nnomzo'o E, Akame J, Tarini A, Zhang Y, Njiokou F, et al. Mapping of Bancroftian Filariasis in Cameroon: prospects for elimination. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015;9(9):e0004001.","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"6","key":"5009_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0005633","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005633","volume":"11","author":"HC Nana-Djeunga","year":"2017","unstructured":"Nana-Djeunga HC, Tchouakui M, Njitchouang GR, Tchatchueng-Mbougua JB, Nwane P, Domche A, Bopda J, Mbickmen-Tchana S, Akame J, Tarini A, et al. First evidence of lymphatic filariasis transmission interruption in Cameroon: Progress towards elimination. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2017;11(6):e0005633.","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"6","key":"5009_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1016\/S0035-9203(01)90112-9","volume":"95","author":"M Esum","year":"2001","unstructured":"Esum M, Wanji S, Tendongfor N, Enyong P. Co-endemicity of loiasis and onchocerciasis in the South West Province of Cameroon: implications for mass treatment with ivermectin. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2001;95(6):673\u20136.","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"5009_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-7-363","volume":"7","author":"DH Molyneux","year":"2014","unstructured":"Molyneux DH, Hopkins A, Bradley MH, Kelly-Hope LA. Multidimensional complexities of filariasis control in an era of large-scale mass drug administration programmes: a can of worms. Parasit Vectors. 2014;7:363.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"1","key":"5009_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-018-2900-y","volume":"11","author":"LA Kelly-Hope","year":"2018","unstructured":"Kelly-Hope LA, Hemingway J, Taylor MJ, Molyneux DH. Increasing evidence of low lymphatic filariasis prevalence in high risk Loa loa areas in central and West Africa: a literature review. Parasit Vectors. 2018;11(1):349.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"5009_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-0817-2","volume":"8","author":"S Wanji","year":"2015","unstructured":"Wanji S, Kengne-Ouafo JA, Esum ME, Chounna PW, Tendongfor N, Adzemye BF, Eyong JE, Jato I, Datchoua-Poutcheu FR, Kah E, et al. Situation analysis of parasitological and entomological indices of onchocerciasis transmission in three drainage basins of the rain forest of South West Cameroon after a decade of ivermectin treatment. Parasit Vectors. 2015;8:202.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"5009_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-016-1556-8","volume":"9","author":"S Wanji","year":"2016","unstructured":"Wanji S, Amvongo-Adjia N, Njouendou AJ, Kengne-Ouafo JA, Ndongmo WP, Fombad FF, Koudou B, Enyong PA, Bockarie M. Further evidence of the cross-reactivity of the Binax NOW(R) Filariasis ICT cards to non-Wuchereria bancrofti filariae: experimental studies with Loa loa and Onchocerca ochengi. Parasit Vectors. 2016;9:267.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"6","key":"5009_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1417","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.16-0547","volume":"95","author":"SD Pion","year":"2016","unstructured":"Pion SD, Montavon C, Chesnais CB, Kamgno J, Wanji S, Klion AD, Nutman TB, Boussinesq M. Positivity of antigen tests used for diagnosis of lymphatic Filariasis in individuals without Wuchereria bancrofti infection but with high Loa loa Microfilaremia. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2016;95(6):1417\u201323.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"1","key":"5009_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.13-0089","volume":"89","author":"GJ Weil","year":"2013","unstructured":"Weil GJ, Curtis KC, Fakoli L, Fischer K, Gankpala L, Lammie PJ, Majewski AC, Pelletreau S, Won KY, Bolay FK, et al. Laboratory and field evaluation of a new rapid test for detecting Wuchereria bancrofti antigen in human blood. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2013;89(1):11\u20135.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"3","key":"5009_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0007192","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007192","volume":"13","author":"S Wanji","year":"2019","unstructured":"Wanji S, Esum ME, Njouendou AJ, Mbeng AA, Chounna Ndongmo PW, Abong RA, Fru J, Fombad FF, Nchanji GT, Ngongeh G, et al. Mapping of lymphatic filariasis in loiasis areas: a new strategy shows no evidence for Wuchereria bancrofti endemicity in Cameroon. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2019;13(3):e0007192.","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"5","key":"5009_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2006.74.826","volume":"74","author":"RU Rao","year":"2006","unstructured":"Rao RU, Atkinson LJ, Ramzy RM, Helmy H, Farid HA, Bockarie MJ, Susapu M, Laney SJ, Williams SA, Weil GJ. A real-time PCR-based assay for detection of Wuchereria bancrofti DNA in blood and mosquitoes. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006;74(5):826\u201332.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"8","key":"5009_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001299","volume":"5","author":"DL Fink","year":"2011","unstructured":"Fink DL, Kamgno J, Nutman TB. Rapid molecular assays for specific detection and quantitation of Loa loa microfilaremia. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011;5(8):e1299.","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"5009_CR20","unstructured":"Natural Earth: Natural Earth. Available at https:\/\/www.naturalearthdata.com\/. Accessed 02 Novemebr ,2019.."},{"key":"5009_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-0979-y","volume":"8","author":"TC Yahathugoda","year":"2015","unstructured":"Yahathugoda TC, Supali T, Rao RU, Djuardi Y, Stefani D, Pical F, Fischer PU, Lloyd MM, Premaratne PH, Weerasooriya MV, et al. A comparison of two tests for filarial antigenemia in areas in Sri Lanka and Indonesia with low-level persistence of lymphatic filariasis following mass drug administration. Parasit Vectors. 2015;8:369.","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"issue":"4","key":"5009_CR22","first-page":"403","volume":"41","author":"SJ More","year":"1990","unstructured":"More SJ, Copeman DB. A highly specific and sensitive monoclonal antibody-based ELISA for the detection of circulating antigen in bancroftian filariasis. Trop Med Parasitol. 1990;41(4):403\u20136.","journal-title":"Trop Med Parasitol"},{"key":"5009_CR23","unstructured":"Pion SD, Montavon C, Chesnais CJ, Kamgno J, Wanji. S ea. Correlation between high Loa loa microfilaremia and levels of circulating filarial antigens used to detect Wuchereriabancrofti infection. In: 63rd Annual Meeting, TropMed14. Sheraton New Hotel NewOrleans LAUSA: ASTMH; 2014: pp. 377."},{"issue":"1","key":"5009_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2883-3-7","volume":"3","author":"MC Thomson","year":"2004","unstructured":"Thomson MC, Obsomer V, Kamgno J, Gardon J, Wanji S, Takougang I, Enyong P, Remme JH, Molyneux DH, Boussinesq M. Mapping the distribution of Loa loa in Cameroon in support of the African Programme for Onchocerciasis control. Filaria J. 2004;3(1):7.","journal-title":"Filaria J"},{"issue":"1","key":"5009_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0006126","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006126","volume":"12","author":"K Deribe","year":"2018","unstructured":"Deribe K, Beng AA, Cano J, Njouendo AJ, Fru-Cho J, Awah AR, Eyong ME, Chounna Ndongmo PW, Giorgi E, Pigott DM, et al. Mapping the geographical distribution of podoconiosis in Cameroon using parasitological, serological, and clinical evidence to exclude other causes of lymphedema. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2018;12(1):e0006126.","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"2","key":"5009_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2006.12.001","volume":"23","author":"GJ Weil","year":"2007","unstructured":"Weil GJ, Ramzy RM. Diagnostic tools for filariasis elimination programs. Trends Parasitol. 2007;23(2):78\u201382.","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"issue":"6","key":"5009_CR27","first-page":"491","volume":"75","author":"EA Ottesen","year":"1997","unstructured":"Ottesen EA, Duke BO, Karam M, Behbehani K. Strategies and tools for the control\/elimination of lymphatic filariasis. Bull World Health Organ. 1997;75(6):491\u2013503.","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"}],"container-title":["BMC Infectious Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12879-020-05009-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12879-020-05009-3\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12879-020-05009-3.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,16]],"date-time":"2021-04-16T00:47:55Z","timestamp":1618534075000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s12879-020-05009-3"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,16]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,12]]}},"alternative-id":["5009"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12879-020-05009-3","relation":{},"ISSN":["1471-2334"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1471-2334"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,16]]},"assertion":[{"value":"26 January 2020","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"1 April 2020","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"16 April 2020","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Ethical approval for this work was obtained from the Cameroon National ethics committee (CNEC) number 2015\/09\/640\/CE\/CNERSH\/SP of 16th September 2015. The Administrative approval number D112-244NS\/MINSANTE\/SG\/DLMEP\/SDL\/PMDTN\/PNLO of 11th August 2016, was granted by the Ministry of Public Health of Cameroon. Individual informed written consent was obtained from each participant.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"284"}}