{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T23:08:39Z","timestamp":1763507319882,"version":"3.45.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763424000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763424000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010269","name":"Wellcome Trust","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["211356\/Z\/18\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["211356\/Z\/18\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010269","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001713","name":"European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["TMA2016SF-1511-ROVAS-2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TMA2016SF-1511-ROVAS-2"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001713","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Infect Dis"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Seroprevalence estimates of endemic human coronaviruses (HCoV) and novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) are limited in Zambia. Information on development of acquired immunity to endemic HCoV in early life is also scarce and the potential cross-protective effect of HCoV immunity on SARS-CoV-2 remains debatable. We investigated seroprevalence of endemic HCoV in mother-child dyads and SARS-CoV-2 in children and explored the association between HCoV and SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in children to elucidate coronavirus seroepidemiology in Zambia.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We measured endemic HCoV NL63, 229E, OC43 and HKU1 and SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein subunit 1 (S1) specific immunoglobulin G (IgG) using an immunoassay. We tested plasma samples collected from Zambian mother-child dyads before the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic in 2018 and 2019, and during the pandemic in 2020 and 2021. We determined HCoV S1 IgG seropositivity in mothers and children and SARS-CoV-2 S1 IgG seropositivity in children. We correlated HCoV antibodies in the mother-child pairs and longitudinally profiled HCoV antibodies in children to investigate development of HCoV immunity and contribution of maternal immunity. We compared child HCoV S1 IgG and SARS-CoV-2 S1 IgG antibodies before and during the pandemic to explore cross-reactivity.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>HCoV and SARS-CoV-2 S1 IgG antibodies were detected among mothers and children. Child HCoV seroconversion occurred following waning of maternal immunity but there was no significant correlation between HCoV and SARS-CoV-2 S1 IgG before and during the pandemic. A rise in SARS-CoV-2 S1 IgG seroprevalence among children was observed following the second and third epidemic waves of the COVID-19 pandemic in Zambia.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Endemic HCoV NL63, 229E, OC43 and HKU1 widely circulated and are acquired early in Zambia. SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence in children speaks to the susceptibility of this population to infection that necessitates their inclusion in control measures.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-025-11974-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T10:49:19Z","timestamp":1763462959000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A longitudinal study of antibody responses to endemic HCoV and novel SARS-CoV-2 among mother-child pairs in Zambia"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Natasha Makabilo","family":"Laban","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Martin Rhys","family":"Goodier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Roma","family":"Chilengi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Harriet","family":"Ng\u2019ombe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Adriace","family":"Chauwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Samuel","family":"Bosomprah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"11974_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu DX, Liang JQ, Fung TS. Human Coronavirus-229E, -OC43, -NL63, and -HKU1 (Coronaviridae). In: Bamford DH, Zuckerman M, editors. Encyclopedia of Virology (Fourth Edition). Oxford: Academic Press; 2021. pp. 428\u2009\u2013\u200940.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-809633-8.21501-X"},{"key":"11974_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"582287","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.582287","volume":"7","author":"AM Alluwaimi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Alluwaimi AM, Alshubaith IH, Al-Ali AM, Abohelaika S. The coronaviruses of animals and birds: their Zoonosis, Vaccines, and models for SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV2. Front Vet Sci. 2020;7:582287.","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"11974_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0000000000002660","volume":"39","author":"P Zimmermann","year":"2020","unstructured":"Zimmermann P, Curtis N. Coronavirus infections in children including COVID-19: an overview of the Epidemiology, clinical Features, Diagnosis, treatment and prevention options in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2020;39(5):355\u201368.","journal-title":"Pediatr Infect Dis J"},{"issue":"3","key":"11974_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0b013e31823e07fe","volume":"31","author":"MM Prill","year":"2012","unstructured":"Prill MM, Iwane MK, Edwards KM, Williams JV, Weinberg GA, Staat MA, et al. Human coronavirus in young children hospitalized for acute respiratory illness and asymptomatic controls. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31(3):235\u201340.","journal-title":"Pediatr Infect Dis J"},{"key":"11974_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-015-0779-1","volume":"15","author":"P Simusika","year":"2015","unstructured":"Simusika P, Bateman AC, Theo A, Kwenda G, Mfula C, Chentulo E, et al. Identification of viral and bacterial pathogens from hospitalized children with severe acute respiratory illness in Lusaka, Zambia, 2011\u20132012: a cross-sectional study. BMC Infect Dis. 2015;15:52.","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"key":"11974_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baillie VL, Moore DP, Mathunjwa A, Park DE, Thea DM, Kwenda G, et al. Epidemiology and seasonality of endemic human coronaviruses in South African and Zambian children: a case-control pneumonia study. Viruses. 2021;13(8).","DOI":"10.3390\/v13081513"},{"issue":"4","key":"11974_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcp\/aqaa029","volume":"153","author":"J Guarner","year":"2020","unstructured":"Guarner J. Three emerging coronaviruses in two decades: the story of SARS, MERS, and now COVID-19. Am J Clin Pathol. 2020;153(4):420\u20131.","journal-title":"Am J Clin Pathol"},{"key":"11974_CR8","unstructured":"WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) dashboard 2023 Available from: https:\/\/data.who.int\/dashboards\/covid19\/deaths"},{"issue":"1","key":"11974_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2625","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-024-20045-3","volume":"24","author":"SL Chanda","year":"2024","unstructured":"Chanda SL, Hines JZ, Malambo W, Hamukale A, Kapata N, Sinyange N, et al. An assessment of excess mortality during the COVID-19 pandemic, a retrospective post-mortem surveillance in 12 districts \u2013 Zambia, 2020\u20132022. BMC Public Health. 2024;24(1):2625.","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"11974_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2022.03.021","volume":"118","author":"K Shanaube","year":"2022","unstructured":"Shanaube K, Schaap A, Klinkenberg E, Floyd S, Bwalya J, Cheeba M, et al. SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence and associated risk factors in periurban zambia: a population-based study. Int J Infect Dis. 2022;118:256\u201363.","journal-title":"Int J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"4","key":"11974_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0003073","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0003073","volume":"4","author":"E Heilmann","year":"2024","unstructured":"Heilmann E, Tembo T, Fwoloshi S, Kabamba B, Chilambe F, Kalenga K, et al. Trends in SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence among pregnant women attending first antenatal care visits in zambia: A repeated cross-sectional survey, 2021\u20132022. PLOS Glob Public Health. 2024;4(4):e0003073.","journal-title":"PLOS Glob Public Health"},{"issue":"11","key":"11974_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2021.2770","volume":"175","author":"LA Paul","year":"2021","unstructured":"Paul LA, Daneman N, Schwartz KL, Science M, Brown KA, Whelan M, et al. Association of age and pediatric household transmission of SARS-CoV-2 infection. JAMA Pediatr. 2021;175(11):1151\u20138.","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr"},{"issue":"9","key":"11974_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2469","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa556","volume":"71","author":"NS Mehta","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mehta NS, Mytton OT, Mullins EWS, Fowler TA, Falconer CL, Murphy OB, et al. SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19): what do we know about children? A systematic review. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(9):2469\u201379.","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"3","key":"11974_CR14","first-page":"e2020032","volume":"91","author":"R Iannarella","year":"2020","unstructured":"Iannarella R, Lattanzi C, Cannata G, Argentiero A, Neglia C, Fainardi V, et al. Coronavirus infections in children: from SARS and MERS to COVID-19, a narrative review of epidemiological and clinical features. Acta Biomed. 2020;91(3):e2020032.","journal-title":"Acta Biomed"},{"issue":"5","key":"11974_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1097\/IPC.0000000000001297","volume":"31","author":"A Arguedas","year":"2023","unstructured":"Arguedas A, Swerdlow DL, Curcio D. The role of children in the transmission of SARS-CoV-2, a shifting paradigm. Infect Dis Clin Pract. 2023;31(5):1\u20138.","journal-title":"Infect Dis Clin Pract"},{"issue":"3","key":"11974_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100558","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xcrm.2022.100558","volume":"3","author":"D Amodio","year":"2022","unstructured":"Amodio D, Cotugno N, Palma P. COVID-19 in children: from afterthought to unknown. Cell Rep Med. 2022;3(3):100558.","journal-title":"Cell Rep Med"},{"key":"11974_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naeimi R, Sepidarkish M, Mollalo A, Parsa H, Mahjour S, Safarpour F, et al. SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence in children worldwide: a systematic review and meta-analysis. eClinicalMedicine. 2023;56.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2022.101786"},{"issue":"1","key":"11974_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4704","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-18450-4","volume":"11","author":"AT Huang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Huang AT, Garcia-Carreras B, Hitchings MDT, Yang B, Katzelnick LC, Rattigan SM, et al. A systematic review of antibody mediated immunity to coronaviruses: kinetics, correlates of protection, and association with severity. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):4704.","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"2","key":"11974_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e02722","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.02722-23","volume":"15","author":"IA Abela","year":"2024","unstructured":"Abela IA, Schwarzm\u00fcller M, Ulyte A, Radtke T, Haile SR, Ammann P, et al. Cross-protective hcov immunity reduces symptom development during SARS-CoV-2 infection. mBio. 2024;15(2):e02722\u201323.","journal-title":"mBio"},{"issue":"3, 2016","key":"11974_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-virology-110615-042301","volume":"3","author":"F Li","year":"2016","unstructured":"Li F. Structure, Function, and evolution of coronavirus spike proteins. Annual Rev Virol. 2016;3(3, 2016):237\u201361.","journal-title":"Annual Rev Virol"},{"issue":"3","key":"11974_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-022-00784-3","volume":"23","author":"Y Chen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Chen Y, Zhao X, Zhou H, Zhu H, Jiang S, Wang P. Broadly neutralizing antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 and other human coronaviruses. Nat Rev Immunol. 2023;23(3):189\u201399.","journal-title":"Nat Rev Immunol"},{"key":"11974_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"891418","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2022.891418","volume":"13","author":"V Cicaloni","year":"2022","unstructured":"Cicaloni V, Costanti F, Pasqui A, Bianchini M, Niccolai N, Bongini P. A bioinformatics approach to investigate structural and Non-Structural proteins in human coronaviruses. Front Genet. 2022;13:891418.","journal-title":"Front Genet"},{"issue":"5","key":"11974_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"906","DOI":"10.1007\/s10875-021-00997-6","volume":"41","author":"J Hicks","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hicks J, Klumpp-Thomas C, Kalish H, Shunmugavel A, Mehalko J, Denson J-P, et al. Serologic Cross-Reactivity of SARS-CoV-2 with endemic and seasonal betacoronaviruses. J Clin Immunol. 2021;41(5):906\u201313.","journal-title":"J Clin Immunol"},{"key":"11974_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e75228","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.75228","volume":"11","author":"AR Crowley","year":"2022","unstructured":"Crowley AR, Natarajan H, Hederman AP, Bobak CA, Weiner JA, Wieland-Alter W, et al. Boosting of cross-reactive antibodies to endemic coronaviruses by SARS-CoV-2 infection but not vaccination with stabilized spike. eLife. 2022;11:e75228.","journal-title":"eLife"},{"issue":"1","key":"11974_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-021-01089-8","volume":"23","author":"AC Dowell","year":"2022","unstructured":"Dowell AC, Butler MS, Jinks E, Tut G, Lancaster T, Sylla P, et al. Children develop robust and sustained cross-reactive spike-specific immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Nat Immunol. 2022;23(1):40\u20139.","journal-title":"Nat Immunol"},{"key":"11974_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.10.104","volume":"102","author":"FY Tso","year":"2021","unstructured":"Tso FY, Lidenge SJ, Pe\u00f1a PB, Clegg AA, Ngowi JR, Mwaiselage J, et al. High prevalence of pre-existing serological cross-reactivity against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) in sub-Saharan africa. Int J Infect Dis. 2021;102:577\u201383.","journal-title":"Int J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"5","key":"11974_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-022-00809-x","volume":"23","author":"SM Murray","year":"2023","unstructured":"Murray SM, Ansari AM, Frater J, Klenerman P, Dunachie S, Barnes E, et al. The impact of pre-existing cross-reactive immunity on SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccine responses. Nat Rev Immunol. 2023;23(5):304\u201316.","journal-title":"Nat Rev Immunol"},{"issue":"2","key":"11974_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11020346","volume":"11","author":"NM Laban","year":"2023","unstructured":"Laban NM, Bosomprah S, Simuyandi M, Chibuye M, Chauwa A, Chirwa-Chobe M, et al. Evaluation of ROTARIX\u00ae booster dose vaccination at 9 months for safety and enhanced Anti-Rotavirus immunity in zambian children: A randomised controlled trial. Vaccines. 2023;11(2):346.","journal-title":"Vaccines"},{"issue":"8","key":"11974_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7008e2","volume":"70","author":"M Mwenda","year":"2021","unstructured":"Mwenda M, Saasa N, Sinyange N, Busby G, Chipimo PJ, Hendry J, et al. Detection of B.1.351 SARS-CoV-2 variant Strain - Zambia, december 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2021;70(8):280\u20132.","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"key":"11974_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.4236\/pp.2022.131002","volume":"13","author":"S Mudenda","year":"2022","unstructured":"Mudenda S, Chileshe M, Mukosha M, Hikaambo C, Banda M, Kampamba M, et al. Zambia\u2019s response to the COVID-19 pandemic: exploring Lessons, challenges and implications for future policies and strategies. Pharmacol Pharm. 2022;13:11\u201333.","journal-title":"Pharmacol Pharm"},{"issue":"42","key":"11974_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1547","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6942a5","volume":"69","author":"PJ Chipimo","year":"2020","unstructured":"Chipimo PJ, Barradas DT, Kayeyi N, Zulu PM, Muzala K, Mazaba ML, et al. First 100 persons with COVID-19 - Zambia, march 18-April 28, 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69(42):1547\u20138.","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"key":"11974_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laban N, Bosomprah S, Musukuma-Chifulo K, Simuyandi M, Iyer S, Ng\u2019ombe H, et al. Comparable exposure to SARS-CoV-2 in young children and healthcare workers in zambia [version 1; peer review: 2 approved with reservations]. Wellcome Open Res. 2021;6(97).","DOI":"10.12688\/wellcomeopenres.16759.1"},{"issue":"9s","key":"11974_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S40","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0000000000002652","volume":"40","author":"L Mwananyanda","year":"2021","unstructured":"Mwananyanda L, Thea DM, Chipeta J, Kwenda G, Mulindwa JM, Mwenechanya M, et al. The etiology of pneumonia in zambian children: findings from the pneumonia etiology research for child health (PERCH) study. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2021;40(9s):S40\u20139.","journal-title":"Pediatr Infect Dis J"},{"issue":"1","key":"11974_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-13-433","volume":"13","author":"W Zhou","year":"2013","unstructured":"Zhou W, Wang W, Wang H, Lu R, Tan W. First infection by all four non-severe acute respiratory syndrome human coronaviruses takes place during childhood. BMC Infect Dis. 2013;13(1):433.","journal-title":"BMC Infect Dis"},{"key":"11974_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2022.11.044","volume":"127","author":"Y Luo","year":"2023","unstructured":"Luo Y, Lv H, Zhao S, Sun Y, Liu C, Chen C, et al. Age-related seroprevalence trajectories of seasonal coronaviruses in children including neonates in Guangzhou, china. Int J Infect Dis. 2023;127:26\u201332.","journal-title":"Int J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"7","key":"11974_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2368","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00533-08","volume":"46","author":"R Dijkman","year":"2008","unstructured":"Dijkman R, Jebbink MF, El Idrissi NB, Pyrc K, M\u00fcller MA, Kuijpers TW, et al. Human coronavirus NL63 and 229E seroconversion in children. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46(7):2368\u201373.","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"11974_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2310","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-29072-3","volume":"13","author":"Y Sayama","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sayama Y, Okamoto M, Saito M, Saito-Obata M, Tamaki R, Joboco CD, et al. Seroprevalence of four endemic human coronaviruses and, reactivity and neutralization capability against SARS-CoV-2 among children in the philippines. Sci Rep. 2023;13(1):2310.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"11974_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomasi L, Thiriard A, Heyndrickx L, Georges D, Van den Wijngaert S, Olislagers V, et al. Younger children develop higher effector antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2022;9(11).","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofac554"},{"key":"11974_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofae418","volume":"11","author":"R Wilson","year":"2024","unstructured":"Wilson R, Kovacs D, Crosby M, Ho A. Global epidemiology and seasonality of human seasonal coronaviruses: A systematic review. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2024;11:8.","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"11974_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022172400062410","volume":"95","author":"KA Callow","year":"1985","unstructured":"Callow KA. Effect of specific humoral immunity and some non-specific factors on resistance of volunteers to respiratory coronavirus infection. J Hyg (Lond). 1985;95(1):173\u201389.","journal-title":"J Hyg (Lond)"},{"key":"11974_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2021.09.039","volume":"112","author":"TG Egwang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Egwang TG, Owalla TJ, Okurut E, Apungia G, Fox A, De Carlo C, et al. Differential pre-pandemic breast milk iga reactivity against SARS-CoV-2 and circulating human coronaviruses in ugandan and american mothers. Int J Infect Dis. 2021;112:165\u201372.","journal-title":"Int J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"7","key":"11974_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.13781","volume":"27","author":"G Loevinsohn","year":"2022","unstructured":"Loevinsohn G, Hamahuwa M, Hardick J, Sinywimaanzi P, Fenstermacher KZJ, Munachoonga P, et al. Respiratory viruses in rural zambia before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Tropical Med Int Health. 2022;27(7):647\u201354.","journal-title":"Tropical Med Int Health"},{"key":"11974_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijregi.2023.07.003","volume":"8","author":"CG Sutcliffe","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sutcliffe CG, Hamahuwa M, Miller E, Sinywimaanzi P, Hardick J, Morales J, et al. Respiratory viruses in rural zambia during the second year of the COVID-19 pandemic. IJID Reg. 2023;8:90\u20134.","journal-title":"IJID Reg"},{"issue":"6522","key":"11974_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abe1107","volume":"370","author":"KW Ng","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ng KW, Faulkner N, Cornish GH, Rosa A, Harvey R, Hussain S, et al. Preexisting and de novo humoral immunity to SARS-CoV-2 in humans. Science. 2020;370(6522):1339\u201343.","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"11974_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Asamoah-Boaheng M, Grunau B, Karim ME, Jassem AN, Bolster J, Marquez AC, et al. Are higher antibody levels against seasonal human coronaviruses associated with a more robust humoral immune response after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination? Front Immunol. 2022;13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.954093"},{"issue":"10","key":"11974_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107967","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2023.107967","volume":"26","author":"D Joshi","year":"2023","unstructured":"Joshi D, Nyhoff LE, Zarnitsyna VI, Moreno A, Manning K, Linderman S, et al. Infants and young children generate more durable antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection than adults. iScience. 2023;26(10):107967.","journal-title":"iScience"},{"issue":"6","key":"11974_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e773","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(21)00053-X","volume":"9","author":"LB Mulenga","year":"2021","unstructured":"Mulenga LB, Hines JZ, Fwoloshi S, Chirwa L, Siwingwa M, Yingst S, et al. Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in six districts in zambia in July, 2020: a cross-sectional cluster sample survey. Lancet Glob Health. 2021;9(6):e773\u201381.","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"11974_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijregi.2022.11.011","volume":"6","author":"OA Msemo","year":"2023","unstructured":"Msemo OA, P\u00e9rez-Al\u00f3s L, Minja DTR, Hansen CB, Gesase S, Mtove G, et al. High anti-SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence among unvaccinated mother\u2013child pairs from a rural setting in north-eastern tanzania during the second wave of COVID-19. IJID Reg. 2023;6:48\u201357.","journal-title":"IJID Reg"},{"issue":"8","key":"11974_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e008793","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2022-008793","volume":"7","author":"HC Lewis","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lewis HC, Ware H, Whelan M, Subissi L, Li Z, Ma X, et al. SARS-CoV-2 infection in africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis of standardised seroprevalence studies, from january 2020 to december 2021. BMJ Global Health. 2022;7(8):e008793.","journal-title":"BMJ Global Health"}],"container-title":["BMC Infectious Diseases"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12879-025-11974-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12879-025-11974-4\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12879-025-11974-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T23:04:52Z","timestamp":1763507092000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s12879-025-11974-4"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["11974"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12879-025-11974-4","relation":{},"ISSN":["1471-2334"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1471-2334"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]]},"assertion":[{"value":"28 June 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"14 October 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"18 November 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"This study was approved by the National Health Research Authority of Zambia who waived the need for consent to participate based on the existing ethical approval for the parent rotavirus vaccine trial obtained by the University of Zambia Biomedical Research Ethics (Reference number: 003-02-18). Informed consent was obtained from all participants enrolled under the rotavirus vaccine trial.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"1610"}}