{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,17]],"date-time":"2024-06-17T19:18:30Z","timestamp":1718651910787},"reference-count":119,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,1]],"date-time":"2021-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1635724800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,1]],"date-time":"2021-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1635724800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Nephrol"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are a growing burden which affects every part of the world, including developing countries. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) has varied etiology which can result from or complicate other NCDs such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. The growing prevalence of NCDs coupled with the increasing age in most developing countries, has seen a marked increase of CKD in these settings. CKD has been described as \u201cthe most neglected NCD\u201d and greatly affects the quality of life of patients. It also places a huge economic burden on societies. However, few epidemiological data exist, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. Assessment of the prevalence of albuminuria as a marker of kidney damage and CKD progression and its main risk factors was thus needed in Rwanda.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>This study analyzed data collected during the first STEPwise approach to NCD risk factor Surveillance (STEPS) survey in Rwanda, conducted from 2012 to 2013, to assess the prevalence of albuminuria. A multistage cluster sampling allowed to select a representative sample of the general population. Furthermore, descriptive, as well as univariable analyses and multiple logistic regression were performed to respond to the research question.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>This survey brought a representative sample of 6,998 participants, among which 4,384 (62.65%) were female. Median age was 33 years (interquartile range, IQR 26-44), and over three quarters (78.45%) lived in rural areas. The albuminuria prevalence was 105.9 per 1,000 population. Overall, semi-urban and urban residency were associated with lower odds of CKD (odds ratio, OR 0.36, CI 0.23-0.56, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>&lt;0.001 and OR 0.34, CI 0.23-0.50, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>&lt;0.001, respectively) than rural status. Being married or living with a partner had higher odds (OR 1.44 (CI 1.03-2.02, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>=0.031) and OR 1.62 (CI 1.06-2.48, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>=0.026), respectively) of CKD than being single. Odds of positive albuminuria were also greater among participants living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (OR 1.64, CI 1.09- 2.47, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>=0.018). Gender, age group, smoking status and vegetable consumption, body mass index (BMI) and hypertension were not associated with albuminuria.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>The albuminuria prevalence was estimated at 105.9 per 1,000 in Rwanda. Rural residence, partnered status and HIV positivity were identified as main risk factors for albuminuria. Increased early screening of albuminuria to prevent CKD among high-risk groups, especially HIV patients, is therefore recommended.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12882-021-02574-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,1]],"date-time":"2021-11-01T23:02:31Z","timestamp":1635807751000},"update-policy":"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Risk factors associated with albuminuria in Rwanda: results from a STEPS survey"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Candide","family":"Tran Ngoc","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Prebo","family":"Barango","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Roger","family":"Harrison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andrew","family":"Jones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Steven Velabo","family":"Shongwe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Albert","family":"Tuyishime","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fran\u00e7ois","family":"Uwinkindi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hongyi","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Stephanie","family":"Shoop-Worrall","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2574_CR1","unstructured":"International Society of Nephrology. International Society of Nephrology [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2018 Dec 4]. Available from: https:\/\/www.theisn.org\/focus\/ckd#closing-the-gaps"},{"issue":"6","key":"2574_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.17.206441","volume":"96","author":"VA Luyckx","year":"2018","unstructured":"Luyckx VA, Tonelli M, Stanifer JW. The global burden of kidney disease and the sustainable development goals. Bull World Health Organ. 2018;96(6):414\u2013422D [cited 2018 Nov 26] Available from: http:\/\/www.who.int\/entity\/bulletin\/volumes\/96\/6\/17-206441.pdf.","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"issue":"8","key":"2574_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneph.2015.85","volume":"11","author":"OJ Wouters","year":"2015","unstructured":"Wouters OJ, O\u2019Donoghue DJ, Ritchie J, Kanavos PG, Narva AS. Early chronic kidney disease: diagnosis, management and models of care. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2015;11(8):491\u2013502 Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/26055354.","journal-title":"Nat Rev Nephrol"},{"issue":"3","key":"2574_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1159\/000158526","volume":"29","author":"E Kr\u00f3l","year":"2009","unstructured":"Kr\u00f3l E, Rutkowski B, Czarniak P, Kraszewska E, Lizakowski S, Szubert R, et al. Early detection of chronic kidney disease: results of the PolNef study. Am J Nephrol. 2009;29(3):264\u201373 Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/18812692.","journal-title":"Am J Nephrol"},{"key":"2574_CR5","unstructured":"Cleveland Clinic. Chronic Kidney Disease Symptoms & Treatment | Cleveland Clinic [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Feb 28]. Available from: https:\/\/my.clevelandclinic.org\/health\/diseases\/15096-kidney-disease-chronic-kidney-disease"},{"key":"2574_CR6","unstructured":"American Kidney Fund. Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) Symptoms, Treatment, Causes & Prevention - American Kidney Fund (AKF) [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Feb 7]. Available from: http:\/\/www.kidneyfund.org\/kidney-disease\/chronic-kidney-disease-ckd\/#symptoms"},{"key":"2574_CR7","unstructured":"NHS. Chronic kidney disease - Symptoms - NHS [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Mar 6]. Available from: https:\/\/www.nhs.uk\/conditions\/kidney-disease\/symptoms\/"},{"issue":"6","key":"2574_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1093\/ckj\/sfx057","volume":"10","author":"SA Brown","year":"2017","unstructured":"Brown SA, Tyrer FC, Clarke AL, Lloyd-Davies LH, Stein AG, Tarrant C, et al. Symptom burden in patients with chronic kidney disease not requiring renal replacement therapy. Clin Kidney J. 2017;10(6):788\u201396 Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/29225808.","journal-title":"Clin Kidney J"},{"issue":"2","key":"2574_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kisu.2017.07.007","volume":"7","author":"AK Bello","year":"2017","unstructured":"Bello AK, Alrukhaimi M, Ashuntantang GE, Basnet S, Rotter RC, Douthat WG, et al. Complications of chronic kidney disease: current state, knowledge gaps, and strategy for action. Kidney Int Suppl. 2017;7(2):122\u20139 Available from: http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2157171617300333.","journal-title":"Kidney Int Suppl"},{"issue":"6","key":"2574_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ackd.2011.10.001","volume":"18","author":"M Yang","year":"2011","unstructured":"Yang M, Fox CH, Vassalotti J, Choi M. Complications of Progression of CKD. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 2011;18(6):400\u20135 Available from: http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S1548559511001418.","journal-title":"Adv Chronic Kidney Dis."},{"key":"2574_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.7196\/SAMJ.9536","volume":"105","author":"I van der Walt","year":"2015","unstructured":"van der Walt I, Swanepoel CR, Mahala B, Meyers AM. Important complications of chronic kidney disease. South African Medical Journal. 2015;105:321.","journal-title":"South African Medical Journal"},{"issue":"1","key":"2574_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/kisup.2012.73","volume":"3","author":"Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD Work Group","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD Work Group. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease. Kidney Inter Suppl. 2013;3(1):1\u2013150 Available from: https:\/\/kdigo.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/02\/KDIGO_2012_CKD_GL.pdf.","journal-title":"Kidney Inter Suppl"},{"key":"2574_CR13","unstructured":"NHS. Chronic kidney disease - NHS [Internet]. [cited 2019 Feb 27]. Available from: https:\/\/www.nhs.uk\/conditions\/kidney-disease\/"},{"issue":"10075","key":"2574_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1238","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)32064-5","volume":"389","author":"AC Webster","year":"2017","unstructured":"Webster AC, Nagler EV, Morton RL, Masson P. Chronic kidney disease. Lancet. 2017;389(10075):1238\u201352 [cited 2018 Dec 4] Available from: http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/27887750.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"1","key":"2574_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1038\/kisup.2012.77","volume":"3","author":"Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD Work Group","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD Work Group. Summary of recommendation statements. Kidney Int Suppl. 2013;3(1):5\u201314 Available from: https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/25598998.","journal-title":"Kidney Int Suppl"},{"key":"2574_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neuen BL, Chadban SJ, Demaio AR, Johnson DW, Perkovic V. Chronic kidney disease and the global NCDs agenda. BMJ Glob Heal. 2017; 2(2):e000380\u2013e000380. Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/29225940","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2017-000380"},{"issue":"3","key":"2574_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"c269","DOI":"10.1159\/000321382","volume":"118","author":"RA Nugent","year":"2011","unstructured":"Nugent RA, Fathima SF, Feigl AB, Chyung D. The burden of chronic kidney disease on developing nations: A 21st century challenge in global health. Nephron Clin Pract. 2011;118(3):c269\u201377. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1159\/000321382.","journal-title":"Nephron Clin Pract."},{"key":"2574_CR18","unstructured":"Bello A, Levin A, Tonelli M, Okpechi I, Feehally J, Harris D, et al. Global Kidney Health Atlas: A report by the International Society of Nephrology on the current state of organization and structures for kidney care across the globe. [Internet]. Brussels; 2017 [cited 2019 Jan 25]. Available from: https:\/\/www.theisn.org\/images\/ISN_advocacy\/GKHAtlas_Linked_Compressed1.pdf"},{"issue":"9888","key":"2574_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)60687-X","volume":"382","author":"V Jha","year":"2013","unstructured":"Jha V, Garcia-Garcia G, Iseki K, Li Z, Naicker S, Plattner B, et al. Chronic kidney disease: global dimension and perspectives. Lancet. 2013;382(9888):260\u201372. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)60687-X.","journal-title":"Lancet."},{"key":"2574_CR20","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Noncommunicable Diseases Progress Monitor, 2017 [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2019 Jan 26]. Available from: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/258940\/9789241513029-eng.pdf;jsessionid=0CBCA236416C8A014F457F4F6CF998CF?sequence=1"},{"key":"2574_CR21","unstructured":"Mayo Clinic. Chronic kidney disease - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Mar 6]. Available from: https:\/\/www.mayoclinic.org\/diseases-conditions\/chronic-kidney-disease\/diagnosis-treatment\/drc-20354527"},{"key":"2574_CR22","unstructured":"NHS. Chronic kidney disease - Treatment - NHS [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Mar 6]. Available from: https:\/\/www.nhs.uk\/conditions\/kidney-disease\/treatment\/"},{"key":"2574_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"George C, Mogueo A, Okpechi I, Echouffo-Tcheugui JB, Kengne AP. Chronic kidney disease in low-income to middle-income countries: the case for increased screening. BMJ Glob Heal. 2017; 2(2). Available from: http:\/\/gh.bmj.com\/content\/2\/2\/e000256.abstract","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2016-000256"},{"key":"2574_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kirby T. Screening for chronic kidney disease shows promise. Lancet. 2010; 375(9722):1240\u20131. Available from: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)60527-2","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736"},{"key":"2574_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G Couser W, Remuzzi G, Mendis S, Tonelli M. The contribution of chronic kidney disease to the global burden of major noncommunicable diseases. Kidney International. 2011. 80: 1258\u20131270.","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2011.368"},{"issue":"8","key":"2574_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mpmed.2015.05.005","volume":"43","author":"PD Evans","year":"2015","unstructured":"Evans PD, Taal MW. Epidemiology and causes of chronic kidney disease. Medicine. 2015;43(8):450\u20133. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.mpmed.2015.05.005.","journal-title":"Medicine."},{"key":"2574_CR27","unstructured":"NHS. Chronic kidney disease - Diagnosis - NHS [Internet]. [cited 2019 Feb 28]. Available from: https:\/\/www.nhs.uk\/conditions\/kidney-disease\/diagnosis\/"},{"key":"2574_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sumaili EK, Cohen EP. Screening for chronic kidney disease in sub-Saharan Africa. Lancet [Internet]. 2010; 376(9739):418. 10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)61222-6","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)61222-6"},{"key":"2574_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stanifer JW, Muiru A, Jafar TH, Patel UD. Chronic kidney disease in low- and middle-income countries. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2016; 31(6):868\u201374. Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/27217391","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfv466"},{"issue":"3","key":"2574_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e174","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(14)70002-6","volume":"2","author":"JW Stanifer","year":"2014","unstructured":"Stanifer JW, Jing B, Tolan S, Helmke N, Mukerjee R, Naicker S, et al. The epidemiology of chronic kidney disease in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Glob Heal. 2014;2(3):e174\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2214-109X(14)70002-6.","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Heal."},{"key":"2574_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abd ElHafeez S, Bolignano D, D\u2019Arrigo G, Dounousi E, Tripepi G, Zoccali C. Prevalence and burden of chronic kidney disease among the general population and high-risk groups in Africa: a systematic review. BMJ Open. 2018; 8(1). Available from: http:\/\/bmjopen.bmj.com\/content\/8\/1\/e015069.abstract","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2016-015069"},{"issue":"1","key":"2574_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12882-018-0930-5","volume":"19","author":"AD Kaze","year":"2018","unstructured":"Kaze AD, Ilori T, Jaar BG, Echouffo-Tcheugui JB. Burden of chronic kidney disease on the African continent: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Nephrol. 2018;19(1):1\u201311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12882-018-0930-5.","journal-title":"BMC Nephrol."},{"issue":"3","key":"2574_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e18352","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0018352","volume":"6","author":"CM Wyatt","year":"2011","unstructured":"Wyatt CM, Shi Q, Novak JE, Hoover DR, Szczech L, Mugabo JS, et al. Prevalence of kidney disease in HIV-infected and uninfected rwandan women. PLoS One. 2011;6(3):e18352. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0018352.","journal-title":"PLoS One."},{"key":"2574_CR34","unstructured":"Ministry of Health. Rwanda non-communicable diseases risk factors report [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2019 Jan 25]. Available from: http:\/\/www.who.int\/chp\/steps\/Rwanda_2012_STEPS_Report.pdf?ua=1"},{"key":"2574_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hill NR, Fatoba ST, Oke JL, Hirst JA, O\u2019Callaghan CA, Lasserson DS, et al. Global prevalence of chronic kidney disease - a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2016; 11(7):e0158765\u2013e0158765. Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/27383068","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0158765"},{"issue":"10","key":"2574_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1375","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(19)30374-2","volume":"7","author":"HN Gouda","year":"2019","unstructured":"Gouda HN, Charlson F, Sorsdahl K, Ahmadzada S, Ferrari AJ, Erskine H, et al. Burden of non-communicable diseases in sub-Saharan Africa, 1990\u20132017: results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet Glob Heal. 2019;7(10):e1375\u201387. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2214-109X(19)30374-2.","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Heal."},{"key":"2574_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garcia-Garcia G, Jha V. Chronic kidney disease in disadvantaged populations. Indian J Nephrol. 2015; 25(2):65\u20139. Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/25838641","DOI":"10.4103\/0971-4065.150078"},{"key":"2574_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators. Global, regional, and national age\u2013sex specifi c all-cause and cause-specifi c mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990\u20132013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet. 2015; 385(9963):117\u201371. 10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)61682-2","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)61682-2"},{"key":"2574_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1159\/000489897","volume":"2018","author":"B Bikbov","year":"2016","unstructured":"Bikbov B, Perico N, Remuzzi G. Disparities in Chronic Kidney Disease Prevalence among males and females in 195 countries: analysis of the global burden of disease. Study Nephron. 2016;2018:313\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1159\/000489897.","journal-title":"Study Nephron."},{"issue":"1","key":"2574_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2016.01.017","volume":"68","author":"V Jha","year":"2016","unstructured":"Jha V, Prasad N. CKD and infectious diseases in asia pacific: challenges and opportunities. Am J Kidney Dis. 2016;68(1):148\u201360. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1053\/j.ajkd.2016.01.017.","journal-title":"Am J Kidney Dis."},{"issue":"2","key":"2574_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kisu.2017.07.003","volume":"7","author":"VA Luyckx","year":"2017","unstructured":"Luyckx VA, Tuttle KR, Garcia-Garcia G, Gharbi MB, Heerspink HJL, Johnson DW, et al. Reducing major risk factors for chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl. 2017;7(2):71\u201387 Available from: http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2157171617300291.","journal-title":"Kidney Int Suppl."},{"key":"2574_CR42","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO). A framework for surveillance- The WHO STEPwise approach to Surveillance of noncommunicable diseases ( STEPS ) [Internet]. 2003. Available from: http:\/\/www.who.int\/ncd_surveillance\/en\/steps_framework_dec03.pdf"},{"key":"2574_CR43","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO). STEPwise approach to noncommunicable disease risk factor Surveillance (STEPS) [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jan 25]. Available from: https:\/\/www.who.int\/ncds\/surveillance\/steps\/riskfactor\/en\/"},{"key":"2574_CR44","unstructured":"World Health Organization. The STEPS Surveillance Manual [Internet]. 2017. 474 p. Available from: https:\/\/www.who.int\/ncds\/surveillance\/steps\/STEPS_Manual.pdf"},{"key":"2574_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"h4155","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.h4155","volume":"351","author":"P Sedgwick","year":"2015","unstructured":"Sedgwick P. Multistage sampling. BMJ. 2015;351:h4155.","journal-title":"BMJ."},{"key":"2574_CR46","unstructured":"Ministry of Health (Rwanda). Rwanda non communicable diseases risk factors survey 2012- Survey Protocol. 2012."},{"key":"2574_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lavrakas P. Encyclopedia of survey research methods [Internet]. Thousand Oaks; 2008. Available from: http:\/\/methods.sagepub.com\/reference\/encyclopedia-of-survey-research-methods","DOI":"10.4135\/9781412963947"},{"key":"2574_CR48","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO). Module 8: blood collection \u2013 finger prick [Internet]. 2005. Available from: https:\/\/www.who.int\/diagnostics_laboratory\/documents\/guidance\/module8_blood_collection_fingerprick.pdf?ua=1"},{"key":"2574_CR49","unstructured":"PTS diagnostics. CardioChek PA analyzer [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2018 Dec 4]. Available from: https:\/\/ptsdiagnostics.com\/cardiochek-pa-analyzer\/"},{"key":"2574_CR50","unstructured":"Uwera C. Re: NCDs Data. 2018."},{"key":"2574_CR51","unstructured":"COBAS [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2019 Jan 26]. Available from: https:\/\/diagnostics.roche.com\/"},{"issue":"6","key":"2574_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1111\/ceo.12358","volume":"42","author":"RJ Casson","year":"2014","unstructured":"Casson RJ, Farmer LDM. Understanding and checking the assumptions of linear regression: a primer for medical researchers. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. 2014;42(6):590\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ceo.12358.","journal-title":"Clin Experiment Ophthalmol."},{"key":"2574_CR53","unstructured":"Statacorp. STATA software [Internet]. 2019 [cited 26 Jan 2019]. Available from: https:\/\/www.stata.com\/"},{"issue":"6","key":"2574_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1334","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15026","volume":"75","author":"T Unger","year":"2020","unstructured":"Unger T, Borghi C, Charchar F, Khan NA, Poulter NR, Prabhakaran D, et al. International society of hypertension global hypertension practice guidelines. Hypertension. 2020;75(6):1334\u201357. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15026.","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"issue":"12","key":"2574_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1632","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(19)30443-7","volume":"7","author":"JA George","year":"2019","unstructured":"George JA, Brandenburg J-T, Fabian J, Crowther NJ, Agongo G, Alberts M, et al. Kidney damage and associated risk factors in rural and urban sub-Saharan Africa (AWI-Gen): a cross-sectional population study. Lancet Glob Heal. 2019;7(12):e1632\u201343. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2214-109X(19)30443-7.","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Heal."},{"key":"2574_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mukakarangwa M, Chironda G, Bhengu B, G K. Adherence to hemodialysis and associated factors among end stage renal disease patients at selected nephrology units in Rwanda: a descriptive cross-sectional study. Nurs Res Pract. 2018; Available from: https:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/nrp\/2018\/4372716\/#B14","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/4372716"},{"key":"2574_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Urbanisation, inequality, and non-communicable disease risk. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2017;5(5):313. Available from: https:\/\/www.thelancet.com\/pdfs\/journals\/landia\/PIIS2213-8587(17)30116-X.pdf","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(17)30116-X"},{"key":"2574_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.12927\/whp.2014.23722","volume":"15","author":"S Eckert","year":"2014","unstructured":"Eckert S, Kohler S. Urbanization and health in developing countries: a systematic review. World Health Popul. 2014;15:7\u201320.","journal-title":"World Health Popul."},{"issue":"1","key":"2574_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-13-513","volume":"13","author":"S Cyril","year":"2013","unstructured":"Cyril S, Oldroyd JC, Renzaho A. Urbanisation, urbanicity, and health: a systematic review of the reliability and validity of urbanicity scales. BMC Public Health. 2013;13(1):513. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1471-2458-13-513.","journal-title":"BMC Public Health."},{"issue":"4","key":"2574_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ki.5002701","volume":"73","author":"V Perkovic","year":"2008","unstructured":"Perkovic V, Cass A, Patel AA, Suriyawongpaisal P, Barzi F, Chadban S, et al. High prevalence of chronic kidney disease in Thailand. Kidney Int. 2008;73(4):473\u20139 Available from: http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0085253815530093.","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"issue":"12","key":"2574_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0209259","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0209259","volume":"13","author":"R Min","year":"2018","unstructured":"Min R, Wang H, Zhang X, Li X, Fang P, Bai X. Facing the urban-rural gap in patients with chronic kidney disease: evidence from inpatients with urban or rural medical insurance in central China. PLoS One. 2018;13(12):e0209259 Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/30596680.","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2574_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1186\/s12882-015-0111-8","volume":"16","author":"FF Kaze","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kaze FF, Meto DT, Halle M-P, Ngogang J, Kengne A-P. Prevalence and determinants of chronic kidney disease in rural and urban Cameroonians: a cross-sectional study. BMC Nephrol. 2015;16:117 Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/26220538.","journal-title":"BMC Nephrol"},{"key":"2574_CR63","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO). Closing the gap in one generation: Health equity through action on the social determinants of health [Internet]. 2008 [cited 2019 Aug 3]. Available from: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/43943\/9789241563703_eng.pdf;jsessionid=08D0CEB8926F9F772B4F80894B68FADE?sequence=1"},{"issue":"3","key":"2574_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1038\/kisup.2013.4","volume":"2013","author":"S Naicker","year":"2013","unstructured":"Naicker S. End-stage renal disease in sub-Saharan Africa. Kidney Int Suppl. 2013;2013(3):161\u20133 Available from: https:\/\/www.kisupplements.org\/article\/S2157-1716(15)31135-7\/pdf.","journal-title":"Kidney Int Suppl."},{"key":"2574_CR65","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO). Health in all policies: framework for country action. 2013 [cited 3 Aug 2019]. p. 28. Available from: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/112636\/9789241506908_eng.pdf;jsessionid=5A3099456028840A395EAFCC1049F7C0?sequence=1"},{"key":"2574_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"267329","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/267329","volume":"2012","author":"MN Huda","year":"2012","unstructured":"Huda MN, Alam KS, Harun-Ur-Rashid. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease and its association with risk factors in disadvantageous population. Int J Nephrol. 2012;2012:267329. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2012\/267329 Tesch G, editor.","journal-title":"Int J Nephrol"},{"issue":"suppl_1","key":"2574_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1093\/geroni\/igx004.736","volume":"1","author":"R Hilz","year":"2017","unstructured":"Hilz R. Gender differences in the relationship between marital status and health-risk behaviour in Germany. Innov Aging. 2017;1(suppl_1):193. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/geroni\/igx004.736.","journal-title":"Innov Aging"},{"key":"2574_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eng PM, Kawachi I, Fitzmaurice G, Rimm EB. Effects of marital transitions on changes in dietary and other health behaviours in US male health professionals. J Epidemiol Community Health [Internet]. 2005;59(1):56 LP \u2013 62. Available from: http:\/\/jech.bmj.com\/content\/59\/1\/56.abstract","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.2004.020073"},{"issue":"3","key":"2574_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1220","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-018-6055-8","volume":"18","author":"FM Wekesah","year":"2018","unstructured":"Wekesah FM, Nyanjau L, Kibachio J, Mutua MK, Mohamed SF, Grobbee DE, et al. Individual and household level factors associated with presence of multiple non-communicable disease risk factors in Kenyan adults. BMC Public Health. 2018;18(3):1220. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12889-018-6055-8.","journal-title":"BMC Public Health."},{"issue":"1","key":"2574_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1177\/1440783306061353","volume":"42","author":"B Hewitt","year":"2006","unstructured":"Hewitt B, Baxter J, Western M. Family, work and health: The impact of marriage, parenthood and employment on self-reported health of Australian men and women. J Sociol. 2006;42(1):61\u201378. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1440783306061353.","journal-title":"J Sociol."},{"key":"2574_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"568785","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/568785","volume":"2012","author":"JP Stimpson","year":"2012","unstructured":"Stimpson JP, Wilson FA, Peek MK. Marital status, the economic benefits of marriage, and days of inactivity due to poor health. Int J Popul Res. 2012;2012:568785. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2012\/568785 Schuler SR, editor.","journal-title":"Int J Popul Res"},{"issue":"8","key":"2574_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1177\/0192513X10365834","volume":"31","author":"HL Koball","year":"2010","unstructured":"Koball HL, Moiduddin E, Henderson J, Goesling B, Besculides M. What do we know about the link between marriage and health? J Fam Issues. 2010;31(8):1019\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0192513X10365834.","journal-title":"J Fam Issues."},{"issue":"1","key":"2574_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20680","DOI":"10.3402\/gha.v6i0.20680","volume":"6","author":"N Phaswana-Mafuya","year":"2013","unstructured":"Phaswana-Mafuya N, Peltzer K, Chirinda W, Musekiwa A, Kose Z. Sociodemographic predictors of multiple non-communicable disease risk factors among older adults in South Africa. Glob Health Action. 2013;6(1):20680. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3402\/gha.v6i0.20680.","journal-title":"Glob Health Action."},{"issue":"1","key":"2574_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1564","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-020-09646-w","volume":"20","author":"T Yosef","year":"2020","unstructured":"Yosef T. Prevalence and associated factors of chronic non-communicable diseases among cross-country truck drivers in Ethiopia. BMC Public Health. 2020;20(1):1564. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12889-020-09646-w.","journal-title":"BMC Public Health."},{"key":"2574_CR75","unstructured":"Gojowy D, Wi\u0119cek A. Chronic kidney disease and ageing. J Gerontol Geriatr. 2017 [cited 2019 Feb 20]; Available from: http:\/\/www.jgerontology-geriatrics.com\/article\/chronic-kidney-disease-and-ageing\/"},{"issue":"6","key":"2574_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ackd.2016.11.013","volume":"23","author":"TW Ferguson","year":"2016","unstructured":"Ferguson TW, Tangri N. Identifying potential biases in the nephrology literature. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 2016;23(6):373\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1053\/j.ackd.2016.11.013.","journal-title":"Adv Chronic Kidney Dis."},{"issue":"3","key":"2574_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2007.11.009","volume":"51","author":"L Zhang","year":"2008","unstructured":"Zhang L, Zhang P, Wang F, Zuo L, Zhou Y, Shi Y, et al. Prevalence and factors associated with CKD: a population study from Beijing. Am J Kidney Dis. 2008;51(3):373\u201384. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1053\/j.ajkd.2007.11.009.","journal-title":"Am J Kidney Dis."},{"issue":"30","key":"2574_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e4203","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000004203","volume":"95","author":"P-Y Chang","year":"2016","unstructured":"Chang P-Y, Chien L-N, Lin Y-F, Wu M-S, Chiu W-T, Chiou H-Y. Risk factors of gender for renal progression in patients with early chronic kidney disease. Medicine. 2016;95(30):e4203 Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/27472690.","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"2574_CR79","unstructured":"United States Renal Data System. 2015 USRDS annual data report: epidemiology of kidney disease in the United States. [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2019 Aug 15]. Available from: https:\/\/www.usrds.org\/2015\/view\/Default.aspx"},{"issue":"4","key":"2574_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ekir.2018.04.006","volume":"3","author":"DW Ploth","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ploth DW, Mbwambo JK, Fonner VA, Horowitz B, Zager P, Schrader R, et al. Prevalence of CKD, diabetes, and hypertension in rural Tanzania. Kidney Int Reports. 2018;3(4):905\u201315 Available from: http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2468024918300974.","journal-title":"Kidney Int Reports."},{"issue":"8","key":"2574_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1542","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.ndt.a027610","volume":"11","author":"P Jungers","year":"1996","unstructured":"Jungers P, Chauveau P, Descamps-Latscha B, Labrunie M, Giraud E, Man N, et al. Age and gender-related incidence of chronic renal failure in a French urban area: a prospective epidemiologic study. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1996;11(8):1542\u20136.","journal-title":"Nephrol Dial Transplant."},{"issue":"5","key":"2574_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2016.06.021","volume":"68","author":"LA Inker","year":"2016","unstructured":"Inker LA, Shafi T, Okparavero A, Tighiouart H, Eckfeldt JH, Katz R, et al. Effects of race and sex on measured GFR: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Am J Kidney Dis. 2016;68(5):743\u201351 Available from: http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0272638616303092.","journal-title":"Am J Kidney Dis."},{"issue":"7","key":"2574_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2008030276","volume":"19","author":"K Norris","year":"2008","unstructured":"Norris K, Nissenson AR. Race, gender, and socioeconomic disparities in CKD in the United States. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008;19(7):1261\u201370 Available from: https:\/\/jasn.asnjournals.org\/content\/19\/7\/1261.short.","journal-title":"J Am Soc Nephrol."},{"issue":"1","key":"2574_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"226 LP","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.03740907","volume":"3","author":"SR Orth","year":"2008","unstructured":"Orth SR, Hallan SI. Smoking: a risk factor for progression of chronic kidney disease and for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in renal patients\u2014absence of evidence or evidence of absence? Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008;3(1):226 LP\u2013236 Available from: http:\/\/cjasn.asnjournals.org\/content\/3\/1\/226.abstract.","journal-title":"Clin J Am Soc Nephrol"},{"key":"2574_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1291\/hypres.31.485","volume":"31","author":"N Ishizaka","year":"2008","unstructured":"Ishizaka N, Ishizaka Y, Toda E, Shimomura H, Koike K, Seki G, et al. Association between cigarette smoking and chronic kidney disease in Japanese men. Hypertens Res. 2008;31:485. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1291\/hypres.31.485.","journal-title":"Hypertens Res."},{"issue":"1","key":"2574_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-10-731","volume":"10","author":"R Yacoub","year":"2010","unstructured":"Yacoub R, Habib H, Lahdo A, Al Ali R, Varjabedian L, Atalla G, et al. Association between smoking and chronic kidney disease: a case control study. BMC Public Health. 2010;10(1):731. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1471-2458-10-731.","journal-title":"BMC Public Health."},{"issue":"5","key":"2574_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2072","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1755.2000.00056.x","volume":"57","author":"AJ Bleyer","year":"2000","unstructured":"Bleyer AJ, Shemanski LR, Burke GL, Hansen KJ, Appel RG. Tobacco, hypertension, and vascular disease: risk factors for renal functional decline in an older population. Kidney Int. 2000;57(5):2072\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1046\/j.1523-1755.2000.00056.x.","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"2574_CR88","first-page":"519","volume":"36","author":"UF Elihimas J\u00fanior","year":"2014","unstructured":"Elihimas J\u00fanior UF, Elihimas HC d S, Lemos VM, Le\u00e3o M d A, S\u00e1 MPB d O, Fran\u00e7a EET d, et al. Smoking as risk factor for chronic kidney disease: systematic review. Brazilian Journal of Nephrology Scielo. 2014;36:519\u201328.","journal-title":"Brazilian Journal of Nephrology Scielo"},{"issue":"23","key":"2574_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2105.LP","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000008537","volume":"93","author":"JV Lindbohm","year":"2019","unstructured":"Lindbohm JV, Kaprio J, Korja M. Survival bias explains improved survival in smokers and hypertensive individuals after aSAH. Neurology. 2019;93(23):e2105.LP\u2013e2109 Available from: http:\/\/n.neurology.org\/content\/93\/23\/e2105.abstract.","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"issue":"4","key":"2574_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1097\/WAD.0b013e3182420b6e","volume":"26","author":"C-CH Chang","year":"2012","unstructured":"Chang C-CH, Zhao Y, Lee C-W, Ganguli M. Smoking, death, and Alzheimer disease: a case of competing risks. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2012;26(4):300\u20136 Available from: https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/22185783.","journal-title":"Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord."},{"key":"2574_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"g4490","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.g4490","volume":"349","author":"X Wang","year":"2014","unstructured":"Wang X, Ouyang Y, Liu J, Zhu M, Zhao G, Bao W, et al. Fruit and vegetable consumption and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. BMJ. 2014;349:g4490 Available from: http:\/\/www.bmj.com\/content\/349\/bmj.g4490.abstract.","journal-title":"BMJ."},{"issue":"21","key":"2574_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/djh296","volume":"96","author":"H-C Hung","year":"2004","unstructured":"Hung H-C, Joshipura KJ, Jiang R, Hu FB, Hunter D, Smith-Warner SA, et al. Fruit and vegetable intake and risk of major chronic disease. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2004;96(21):1577\u201384. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/jnci\/djh296.","journal-title":"J Natl Cancer Inst."},{"issue":"1","key":"2574_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1186\/s12966-016-0334-5","volume":"13","author":"B Nguyen","year":"2016","unstructured":"Nguyen B, Bauman A, Gale J, Banks E, Kritharides L, Ding D. Fruit and vegetable consumption and all-cause mortality: evidence from a large Australian cohort study. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2016;13(1):9. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12966-016-0334-5.","journal-title":"Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act."},{"issue":"2","key":"2574_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1097\/00001648-199803000-00019","volume":"9","author":"C La Vecchia","year":"1998","unstructured":"La Vecchia C, Decarli A, Pagano R. Vegetable consumption and risk of chronic disease. Epidemiology. 1998;9(2):208\u201310 Available from: http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/3702963.","journal-title":"Epidemiology."},{"key":"2574_CR95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Jhee JH, Kee YK, Park JT, Chang T-I, Kang EW, Yoo T-H, et al. A diet rich in vegetables and fruit and incident CKD: a community-based prospective cohort study. Am J Kidney Dis. 2019. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1053\/j.ajkd.2019.02.023.","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2019.02.023"},{"issue":"7 Suppl 1","key":"2574_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.5414\/CNP83S032","volume":"83","author":"S Naicker","year":"2015","unstructured":"Naicker S, Rahmanian S, Kopp JB. HIV and chronic kidney disease. Clin Nephrol. 2015;83(7 Suppl 1):32\u20138 Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/25725239.","journal-title":"Clin Nephrol"},{"issue":"4","key":"2574_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0195443","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0195443","volume":"13","author":"UE Ekrikpo","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ekrikpo UE, Kengne AP, Bello AK, Effa EE, Noubiap JJ, Salako BL, et al. Chronic kidney disease in the global adult HIV-infected population: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2018;13(4):e0195443. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0195443.","journal-title":"PLoS One."},{"issue":"6","key":"2574_CR98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2291","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfr657","volume":"27","author":"F Ibrahim","year":"2011","unstructured":"Ibrahim F, Hamzah L, Jones R, Nitsch D, Sabin C, Post FA, et al. Comparison of CKD-EPI and MDRD to estimate baseline renal function in HIV-positive patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2011;27(6):2291\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ndt\/gfr657.","journal-title":"Nephrol Dial Transplant."},{"issue":"1","key":"2574_CR99","first-page":"13","volume":"25","author":"CM Wyatt","year":"2017","unstructured":"Wyatt CM. Kidney disease and HIV infection. Top Antivir Med. 2017;25(1):13\u20136 Available from: https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/28402929.","journal-title":"Top Antivir Med."},{"issue":"4","key":"2574_CR100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1097\/COH.0b013e3283476bc3","volume":"6","author":"J Phair","year":"2011","unstructured":"Phair J, Palella F. Renal disease in HIV-infected individuals. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2011;6(4):285\u20139 Available from: https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/21519246.","journal-title":"Curr Opin HIV AIDS."},{"issue":"3","key":"2574_CR101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1007\/s11904-016-0315-y","volume":"13","author":"AC Achhra","year":"2016","unstructured":"Achhra AC, Nugent M, Mocroft A, Ryom L, Wyatt CM. Chronic kidney disease and antiretroviral therapy in HIV-positive individuals: recent developments. Curr HIV\/AIDS Rep. 2016;13(3):149\u201357.","journal-title":"Curr HIV\/AIDS Rep."},{"issue":"1","key":"2574_CR102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e23","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-3018(15)00211-8","volume":"3","author":"A Mocroft","year":"2016","unstructured":"Mocroft A, Lundgren JD, Ross M, Fux CA, Reiss P, Moranne O, et al. Cumulative and current exposure to potentially nephrotoxic antiretrovirals and development of chronic kidney disease in HIV-positive individuals with a normal baseline estimated glomerular filtration rate: a prospective international cohort study. Lancet HIV. 2016;3(1):e23\u201332 Available from: http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2352301815002118.","journal-title":"Lancet HIV."},{"key":"2574_CR103","first-page":"1","volume":"34","author":"JL G\u00f3rriz","year":"2014","unstructured":"Panel of experts from GESIDA of SEIMC the S.E.N. and the SEQCa, G\u00f3rriz JL, Guti\u00e9rrez F, Trullas JC, Arazo P, Arribas JR, et al. Consensus document on the management of renal disease in HIV-infected patients. Nefrol. 2014;34:1\u201381 Available from: https:\/\/www.revistanefrologia.com\/en-consensus-document-on-management-renal-disease-in-hiv-infected-patients-articulo-X2013251414054695.","journal-title":"Nefrol"},{"issue":"11","key":"2574_CR104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2633.LP","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2013070750","volume":"25","author":"GM McMahon","year":"2014","unstructured":"McMahon GM, Preis SR, Hwang S-J, Fox CS. Mid-adulthood risk factor profiles for CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2014;25(11):2633.LP\u20132641 Available from: http:\/\/jasn.asnjournals.org\/content\/25\/11\/2633.abstract.","journal-title":"J Am Soc Nephrol"},{"issue":"1","key":"2574_CR105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2008.03.003","volume":"52","author":"MC Foster","year":"2008","unstructured":"Foster MC, Hwang S-J, Larson MG, Lichtman JH, Parikh NI, Vasan RS, et al. Overweight, obesity, and the development of stage 3 CKD: The Framingham Heart Study. Am J Kidney Dis [Internet]. 2008;52(1):39\u201348 Available from: http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0272638608005751.","journal-title":"Am J Kidney Dis [Internet]."},{"issue":"3","key":"2574_CR106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.4103\/0019-5154.182410","volume":"61","author":"MS Setia","year":"2016","unstructured":"Setia MS. Methodology series module 3: cross-sectional studies. Indian J Dermatol. 2016;61(3):261\u20134 Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/27293245.","journal-title":"Indian J Dermatol"},{"key":"2574_CR107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pavkov ME, Knowler WC, Hanson RL, Bennett PH, Nelson RG. Predictive power of sequential measures of albuminuria for progression to ESRD or death in Pima Indians with type 2 diabetes. Am J Kidney Dis. 2008. 2008; 51(5):759\u201366. Available from: https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/18436086","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2008.01.011"},{"key":"2574_CR108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kr\u00f6pelin TF, de Zeeuw D, Andress DL, Bijlsma MJ, Persson F, Parving H-H, et al. Number and frequency of albuminuria measurements in clinical trials in diabetic nephropathy. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015; 10(3):410 LP \u2013 416. Available from: http:\/\/cjasn.asnjournals.org\/content\/10\/3\/410.abstract","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.07780814"},{"issue":"4","key":"2574_CR109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1159\/000321515","volume":"117","author":"MJ Bottomley","year":"2011","unstructured":"Bottomley MJ, Kalachik A, Mevada C, Brook MO, James T, Harden PN. Single estimated glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria measurement substantially overestimates prevalence of chronic kidney disease. Nephron Clin Pract. 2011;117(4):348\u201352. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1159\/000321515.","journal-title":"Nephron Clin Pract."},{"key":"2574_CR110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stevens LA, Schmid CH, Greene T, Zhang YL, Beck GJ, Froissart M, et al. Comparative performance of the CKD Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI) and the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) Study equations for estimating GFR levels above 60 mL\/min\/1.73 m2. Am J Kidney Dis. 2010. 56(3):486\u201395. Available from: https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/20557989","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2010.03.026"},{"issue":"7","key":"2574_CR111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mpmed.2015.04.005","volume":"43","author":"E Lamb","year":"2015","unstructured":"Lamb E. Assessment of kidney function in adults. Medicine. 2015;43(7):368\u201373. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.mpmed.2015.04.005.","journal-title":"Medicine."},{"key":"2574_CR112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Association of estimated glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in general population cohorts: a collaborative meta-analysis. Lancet. 2010; 375(9731):2073\u201381. 10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)60674-5","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)60674-5"},{"issue":"12","key":"2574_CR113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1587","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(19)30467-X","volume":"7","author":"TE Matsha","year":"2019","unstructured":"Matsha TE, Erasmus RT. Chronic kidney disease in sub-Saharan Africa. Lancet Glob Heal. 2019;7(12):e1587\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2214-109X(19)30467-X.","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Heal."},{"key":"2574_CR114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"752903","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/752903","volume":"2013","author":"R Hemmati","year":"2013","unstructured":"Hemmati R, Gharipour M, Khosravi A, Jozan M. A cost-benefit and accurate method for assessing microalbuminuria: single versus frequent urine analysis. Int J Hypertens. 2013;2013:752903 Available from: https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/24455207.","journal-title":"Int J Hypertens."},{"issue":"5","key":"2574_CR115","first-page":"1313","volume":"15","author":"B Zamanzad","year":"2009","unstructured":"Zamanzad B. Accuracy of dipstick urinalysis as a screening method for detection of glucose, protein, nitrites and blood. East Mediterr Heal J. 2009;15(5):1313\u201322 Available from: http:\/\/www.emro.who.int\/emhj-volume-15-2009\/volume-15-issue-5\/accuracy-of-dipstick-urinalysis-as-a-screening-method-for-detection-of-glucose-protein-nitrites-and-blood.html.","journal-title":"East Mediterr Heal J."},{"issue":"1","key":"2574_CR116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2010.12.026","volume":"58","author":"SL White","year":"2011","unstructured":"White SL, Yu R, Craig JC, Polkinghorne KR, Atkins RC, Chadban SJ. Diagnostic accuracy of urine dipsticks for detection of albuminuria in the general community. Am J Kidney Dis. 2011;58(1):19\u201328. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1053\/j.ajkd.2010.12.026.","journal-title":"Am J Kidney Dis."},{"issue":"4","key":"2574_CR117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1038\/kisup.2013.79","volume":"3","author":"R Kazancio\u011flu","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kazancio\u011flu R. Risk factors for chronic kidney disease: an update. Kidney Int Suppl. 2013;3(4):368\u201371 Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/25019021.","journal-title":"Kidney Int Suppl"},{"issue":"9302","key":"2574_CR118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)07451-2","volume":"359","author":"DA Grimes","year":"2002","unstructured":"Grimes DA, Schulz KF. Bias and causal associations in observational research. Lancet. 2002;359(9302):248\u201352 Available from: http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0140673602074512.","journal-title":"Lancet."},{"key":"2574_CR119","unstructured":"(NISR) NI of S of R. Fourth population and housing census, Rwanda, 2012, Population size , structure and. 2012"}],"container-title":["BMC Nephrology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12882-021-02574-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12882-021-02574-w\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12882-021-02574-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,8]],"date-time":"2023-02-08T05:19:41Z","timestamp":1675833581000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bmcnephrol.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s12882-021-02574-w"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,1]]},"references-count":119,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]}},"alternative-id":["2574"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12882-021-02574-w","relation":{},"ISSN":["1471-2369"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1471-2369","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"26 May 2021","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"25 October 2021","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"1 November 2021","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The STEPS survey was approved by the Rwanda National Ethics Committee (RNEC) [CitationRef removed]. Study participants were provided with a consent form in English and Kinyarwanda; and provided both written informed and oral consent [CitationRef removed]. Written informed assent was obtained from a parent or legal guardian for participants under 18 years old or for participants who were illiterate. Furthermore, participants provided separate consent for participating in step 3, which involved biochemical measurements [CitationRef removed].All procedures were performed in accordance with relevant guidelines.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"361"}}