{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T15:11:10Z","timestamp":1783955470237,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779062400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,22]],"date-time":"2026-06-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782086400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":35,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009168","name":"Nepal Academy of Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009168","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Nephrol"],"DOI":"10.1186\/s12882-026-05030-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T13:58:16Z","timestamp":1779112696000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Biochemical composition and demographic distribution of kidney stones: a hospital-based cross-sectional study in Eastern Nepal"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Binod Kumar Lal","family":"Das","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-3697-5101","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bishal","family":"Khattri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rikesh Jung","family":"Karkee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Santosh Kumar","family":"Yadav","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Punam","family":"Jha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Madhab","family":"Lamsal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"5030_CR1","unstructured":"Definition & Facts for Kidney Stones - NIDDK [Internet]. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases Available from: https:\/\/www.niddk.nih.gov\/health-information\/urologic-diseases\/kidney-stones\/definition-facts."},{"issue":"2","key":"5030_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1007\/s002400050027","volume":"26","author":"JM Baumann","year":"1998","unstructured":"Baumann JM. Stone prevention: why so little progress? Urol Res. 1998;26(2):77\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s002400050027. PMID: 9631938IF: NA NA NA.","journal-title":"Urol Res"},{"issue":"5","key":"5030_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.1978.53","volume":"13","author":"B Finlayson","year":"1978","unstructured":"Finlayson B. Physicochemical aspects of urolithiasis. Kidney Int. 1978;13(5):344\u201360. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/ki.1978.53.","journal-title":"Kidney Int"},{"key":"5030_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delfan B, Baharvand-Ahmadi B, Bahmani M, Mohseni N, Saki K, Rafieian-Kopaei M, et al. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used in treatment of kidney stones and kidney pain in Lorestan province, Iran. 2015;8(4).","DOI":"10.1016\/S2222-1808(14)60751-9"},{"issue":"3","key":"5030_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.3892\/br.2013.73","volume":"1","author":"d Li","year":"2013","unstructured":"Li d, Liu J, Ren J, Yan L, Liu H, Xu Z. Meta-analysis of the urokinase gene 3\u2032-UTR T\/C polymorphism and susceptibility to urolithiasis. Biomed Rep [Internet]. 2013;1(3):369\u201374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3892\/br.2013.73.","journal-title":"Biomed Rep [Internet]"},{"issue":"9","key":"5030_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3902","DOI":"10.4103\/jfmpc.jfmpc_353_24","volume":"13","author":"T Paluchamy","year":"2024","unstructured":"Paluchamy T, Rani ND, Bhuvaneswari G, Tamilselvi S. Risk factors of urolithiasis: A hospital-based retrospective study. J Fam Med Prim Care [Internet]. 2024;13(9):3902\u20135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4103\/jfmpc.jfmpc_353_24.","journal-title":"J Fam Med Prim Care [Internet]"},{"issue":"5","key":"5030_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-009-1116-y","volume":"25","author":"AP Evan","year":"2010","unstructured":"Evan AP. Physiopathology and etiology of stone formation in the kidney and the urinary tract. Pediatr Nephrol. 2010;25(5):831\u201341. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00467-009-1116-y.","journal-title":"Pediatr Nephrol"},{"issue":"12","key":"5030_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eursup.2010.11.006","volume":"9","author":"T Knoll","year":"2010","unstructured":"Knoll T, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, Pathophysiology of Urolithiasis. Eur Urol Suppl [Internet]. 2010;9(12):802\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.eursup.2010.11.006.","journal-title":"Eur Urol Suppl [Internet]"},{"issue":"1","key":"5030_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1007\/s10856-008-3489-z","volume":"20","author":"CK Chauhan","year":"2009","unstructured":"Chauhan CK, Joshi MJ, Vaidya ADB. Growth inhibition of Struvite crystals in the presence of herbal extract Commiphora wightii. J Mater Sci Mater Med [Internet]. 2009;20(1):85\u201392. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10856-008-3489-z.","journal-title":"J Mater Sci Mater Med [Internet]"},{"issue":"6","key":"5030_CR10","first-page":"923","volume":"35","author":"H Kodama","year":"1989","unstructured":"Kodama H, Ohno Y. [Descriptive epidemiology of urolithiasis]. Hinyokika Kiyo. 1989;35(6):923\u201334. https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/2678977\/.","journal-title":"Hinyokika Kiyo"},{"issue":"4","key":"5030_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajur.2018.08.007","volume":"5","author":"Y Liu","year":"2018","unstructured":"Liu Y, Chen Y, Liao B, Luo D, Wang K, Li H, et al. Epidemiology of urolithiasis in Asia. Asian J Urol. 2018;5(4):205\u201314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ajur.2018.08.007.","journal-title":"Asian J Urol"},{"issue":"1","key":"5030_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.4103\/0974-7796.164841","volume":"8","author":"AM Alkhunaizi","year":"2016","unstructured":"Alkhunaizi AM. Urinary stones in Eastern Saudi Arabia. Urol Ann. 2016;8(1):6\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4103\/0974-7796.164841.","journal-title":"Urol Ann"},{"key":"5030_CR13","volume-title":"Practical Clinical Biochemistry","author":"H Varley","year":"2005","unstructured":"Varley H, Gowenlock AH, Bell M. Practical Clinical Biochemistry. 4th ed. London: William Heinemann Medical Books Ltd; 2005. (Chap. 28: Stone).","edition":"4"},{"issue":"2","key":"5030_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semnephrol.2008.01.011","volume":"28","author":"A Mattoo","year":"2008","unstructured":"Mattoo A, Goldfarb DS, Cystinuria. Semin Nephrol. 2008;28(2):181\u201391. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.semnephrol.2008.01.011.","journal-title":"Semin Nephrol"},{"key":"5030_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS, Casey DE, Collins KJ, Dennison HimmelfarbC, et.al.2017ACC\/AHA\/AAPA\/ABC\/ACPM\/AGS\/APhA\/ASH\/ASPC\/NMA\/PCNAGuideline for the Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Management of High Blood Pressure in Adults: Executive Summary: A Report of the American College of Cardiology\/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Hypertens Dallas Tex 1979. 2018;71(6):1269\u2013324. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1161\/hyp.0000000000000066.","DOI":"10.1161\/hyp.0000000000000066"},{"issue":"1","key":"5030_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1590\/s1677-5538.ibju.2019.0278","volume":"46","author":"S Wang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wang S, Zhang Y, Zhang X, Tang Y, Li J. Upper urinary tract stone compositions: the role of age and gender. Int Braz J Urol Off J Braz Soc Urol [Internet]. 2020;46(1):70\u201380. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1590\/s1677-5538.ibju.2019.0278.","journal-title":"Int Braz J Urol Off J Braz Soc Urol [Internet]"},{"issue":"12","key":"5030_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2141","DOI":"10.2215\/cjn.05660614","volume":"9","author":"JC Lieske","year":"2014","unstructured":"Lieske JC, Rule AD, Krambeck AE, Williams JC, Bergstralh EJ, Mehta RA, et al. Stone composition as a function of age and sex. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol CJASN. 2014;9(12):2141\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2215\/cjn.05660614.","journal-title":"Clin J Am Soc Nephrol CJASN"},{"issue":"3","key":"5030_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1007\/s00240-004-0421-y","volume":"32","author":"M Daudon","year":"2004","unstructured":"Daudon M, Dor\u00e9 JC, Jungers P, Lacour B. Changes in stone composition according to age and gender of patients: a multivariate epidemiological approach. Urol Res. 2004;32(3):241\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00240-004-0421-y.","journal-title":"Urol Res"},{"issue":"4","key":"5030_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.4103\/2229-516X.192593","volume":"6","author":"K Gupta","year":"2016","unstructured":"Gupta K, Gill G, Mahajan R. Possible role of elevated serum testosterone in pathogenesis of renal stone formation. Int J Appl Basic Med Res [Internet]. 2016;6(4):241. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4103\/2229-516X.192593.","journal-title":"Int J Appl Basic Med Res [Internet]"},{"issue":"1","key":"5030_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00240-010-0276-3","volume":"39","author":"N Shakhssalim","year":"2011","unstructured":"Shakhssalim N, Roohi Gilani K, Parvin M, Mohammadi Torbati P, Kashi AH, Azadvari M, et al. An assessment of parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, 1,25 (OH)2 vitamin D3, estradiol and testosterone in men with active calcium stone disease and evaluation of its biochemical risk factors. Urol Res [Internet]. 2011;39(1):1\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00240-010-0276-3.","journal-title":"Urol Res [Internet]"},{"issue":"2","key":"5030_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.3126\/mjsbh.v21i2.42802","volume":"21","author":"BB Bhandari","year":"2022","unstructured":"Bhandari BB, Basukala S, Thapa N, Thapa BB, Phuyal A. Infrared Spectroscopic Analysis of Chemical Composition of Urolithiasis Among Serving Nepalese Soldiers- An Institutional study. Med J Shree Birendra Hosp [Internet]. 2022;21(2):6\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3126\/mjsbh.v21i2.42802.","journal-title":"Med J Shree Birendra Hosp [Internet]"},{"key":"5030_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Huang F, Li Y, Cui Y, Zhu Z, Chen J, Zeng F, et al. Relationship between serum testosterone levels and kidney stones prevalence in men. Front Endocrinol. 2022;13. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fendo.2022.863675.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.863675"},{"key":"5030_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Litwin MS, Saigal CS, editors. Urologic Diseases in America. US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 2012; NIH Publication No. 12-7865 https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/01.ju.0000152365.43125.3b.","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ju.0000152365.43125.3b"},{"issue":"7","key":"5030_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2026","DOI":"10.1681\/asn.2006030262","volume":"17","author":"M Daudon","year":"2006","unstructured":"Daudon M, Traxer O, Conort P, Lacour B, Jungers P. Type 2 Diabetes Increases the Risk for Uric Acid Stones. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;17(7):2026\u201333. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1681\/asn.2006030262.","journal-title":"J Am Soc Nephrol"},{"issue":"1","key":"5030_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/S1561-5413(09)60004-1","volume":"11","author":"F Shirazi","year":"2009","unstructured":"Shirazi F, Shahpourian F, Khachian A, Hosseini F, Rad AH, Heidari S, et al. Personal characteristics and urinary stones. Hong Kong J Nephrol. 2009;11(1):14\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S1561-5413(09)60004-1.","journal-title":"Hong Kong J Nephrol"},{"key":"5030_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Department of Urology, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100020, China, Jiang Y, He L, Luo G, Zhang X. Prevalence of kidney stones and associated risk factors in the Shunyi District of Beijing. Hong Kong Med J. 2017 Apr 18. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.12809\/hkmj164904.","DOI":"10.12809\/hkmj164904"},{"issue":"6","key":"5030_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2006.09.004","volume":"48","author":"EN Taylor","year":"2006","unstructured":"Taylor EN, Curhan GC. Body Size and 24-Hour Urine Composition. Am J Kidney Dis [Internet]. 2006;48(6):905\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1053\/j.ajkd.2006.09.004.","journal-title":"Am J Kidney Dis [Internet]"},{"key":"5030_CR28","unstructured":"Pyakurel D, Gautam K, Basnet RB, Pant V. Comprehensive analysis of renal stones using ftir spectroscopy in a referral laboratory in Nepal. https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC12205142IF: NA NA NA\/."},{"issue":"4","key":"5030_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1017\/s0021932012000065","volume":"44","author":"RP Parajuli","year":"2012","unstructured":"Parajuli RP, Umezaki M, Watanabe C. Diet Among People In the Terai Region of Nepal, An Area of Micronutrient Deficiency. J Biosoc Sci. 2012;44(4):401\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/s0021932012000065.","journal-title":"J Biosoc Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"5030_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6467","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-85723-3","volume":"11","author":"D Zhang","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zhang D, Li S, Zhang Z, Li N, Yuan X, Jia Z, et al. Urinary stone composition analysis and clinical characterization of 1520 patients in central China. Sci Rep [Internet]. 2021;11(1):6467. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-021-85723-3.","journal-title":"Sci Rep [Internet]"},{"issue":"1","key":"5030_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.5980\/jpnjurol1989.82.33","volume":"82","author":"S Iida","year":"1991","unstructured":"Iida S. [Effects of urinary pH and acid-base balance on the formation of calcium oxalate stone]. Nihon Hinyokika Gakkai Zasshi Jpn J Urol. 1991;82(1):33\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5980\/jpnjurol1989.82.33.","journal-title":"Nihon Hinyokika Gakkai Zasshi Jpn J Urol"},{"key":"5030_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advnut.2023.03.002","volume":"14","author":"P Peerapen","year":"2023","unstructured":"Peerapen P, Thongboonkerd V. Kidney Stone Prevention. Adv Nutr. 2023;14:555\u201369. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.advnut.2023.03.002.","journal-title":"Adv Nutr"},{"key":"5030_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ahmad S, Urwa \u00b7, Khan IA, et al. Associations between clinical, biochemical, and nutritional factors in kidney stone formation and recurrence. Urolithiasis. 2025;53. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00240-025-01784-3.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00240-025-01784-3"},{"key":"5030_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ivanuta M, Puia D, Petrila O, Ivanuta AM, Pricop C. The impact of stone composition on treatment strategies for patients with urolithiasis: a narrative review. Cureus. 2024 Dec 8. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7759\/cureus.75345.","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.75345"}],"container-title":["BMC Nephrology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12882-026-05030-9","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12882-026-05030-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12882-026-05030-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T14:49:25Z","timestamp":1783954165000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s12882-026-05030-9"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["5030"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12882-026-05030-9","relation":{},"ISSN":["1471-2369"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1471-2369","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]]},"assertion":[{"value":"12 January 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"30 April 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"18 May 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Institutional Review Committee (IRC) of BP Koirala Institute of Health Sciences (BPKIHS) (Reference number: IRC 62\/081\/082; Code: IRC\/2795\/024). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants before data collection. For illiterate participants, informed consent was obtained from their legal guardians in the presence of a witness. Participants\u2019 data were kept confidential and accessible only to the study investigators. All procedures were conducted in accordance with the ethical principles and regulations established by the Declaration of Helsinki.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"380"}}