{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T14:02:53Z","timestamp":1789653773131,"version":"4.0.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781740800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789603200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":91,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"Hebei Innovation and Development Medical Cooperation Program","award":["HR202502016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HR202502016"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Neurol"],"DOI":"10.1186\/s12883-026-05050-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T09:50:52Z","timestamp":1781776252000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Development and validation of a diagnostic model for mild cognitive impairment in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and concomitant white matter hyperintensities"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Bo","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Runzhou","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qiuyue","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yan","family":"Yao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yan","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xuechun","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yongcai","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"5050_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2021.109119","volume":"183","author":"H Sun","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sun H, Saeedi P, Karuranga S, Pinkepank M, Ogurtsova K, Duncan BB, et al. IDF diabetes atlas: global, regional and country-level diabetes prevalence estimates for 2021 and projections for 2045. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2022;183:109119. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.diabres.2021.109119.","journal-title":"Diabetes Res Clin Pract"},{"key":"5050_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1038\/s41574-018-0048-7","volume":"14","author":"GJ Biessels","year":"2018","unstructured":"Biessels GJ, Despa F. Cognitive decline and dementia in diabetes mellitus: mechanisms and clinical implications. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2018;14:591\u2013604. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41574-018-0048-7.","journal-title":"Nat Rev Endocrinol"},{"key":"5050_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-024-07019-6","volume":"627","author":"K Suzuki","year":"2024","unstructured":"Suzuki K, Hatzikotoulas K, Southam L, Taylor HJ, Yin X, Lorenz KM, et al. Genetic drivers of heterogeneity in type 2 diabetes pathophysiology. Nature. 2024;627:347\u201357. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41586-024-07019-6.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"5050_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.4239\/wjd.v14.i2.92","volume":"14","author":"MJ Sebastian","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sebastian MJ, Khan SK, Pappachan JM, Jeeyavudeen MS. Diabetes and cognitive function: an evidence-based current perspective. World J Diabetes. 2023;14:92\u2013109. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4239\/wjd.v14.i2.92.","journal-title":"World J Diabetes"},{"key":"5050_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e35557","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000035557","volume":"102","author":"N Aderinto","year":"2023","unstructured":"Aderinto N, Olatunji G, Abdulbasit M, Ashinze P, Faturoti O, Ajagbe A, et al. The impact of diabetes in cognitive impairment: a review of current evidence and prospects for future investigations. Med (Baltim). 2023;102:e35557. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/MD.0000000000035557.","journal-title":"Med (Baltim)"},{"key":"5050_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e70089","DOI":"10.1111\/1753-0407.70089","volume":"17","author":"X Meng","year":"2025","unstructured":"Meng X, Du H, Li D, Guo Y, Luo P, Pan L, et al. Risk factors, pathological changes, and potential treatment of diabetes-associated cognitive dysfunction. J Diabetes. 2025;17:e70089. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1753-0407.70089.","journal-title":"J Diabetes"},{"key":"5050_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20251253","DOI":"10.1515\/med-2025-1253","volume":"20","author":"Q Liu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Liu Q, Dai S, Li X, Chen Y, Wang N, Wu J, et al. A review of brain research on t2DM-related cognitive dysfunction. Open Med (Wars). 2025;20:20251253. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515\/med-2025-1253.","journal-title":"Open Med (Wars)"},{"key":"5050_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"[Chinese guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of vascular cognitive impairment. (2024 edition)]. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi. 2024;104:2881\u20132894. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3760\/cma.j.cn112137-20240501-01024.","DOI":"10.3760\/cma.j.cn112137-20240501-01024"},{"key":"5050_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2025.106332","volume":"188","author":"CM Choo","year":"2025","unstructured":"Choo CM, Tan CH. Effects of regional white matter hyperintensities and \u03b2-amyloid on domain-specific cognition and progression to dementia. Brain Cogn. 2025;188:106332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bandc.2025.106332.","journal-title":"Brain Cogn"},{"key":"5050_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1177\/13872877251360239","volume":"107","author":"Y Qiu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Qiu Y, Bao J, Wang T, Shang L, Chu S, Jin W, et al. Global and regional white matter hyperintensities in alzheimer\u2019s disease: exploring etiologies and cognitive correlates. J Alzheimers Dis. 2025;107:246\u201356. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/13872877251360239.","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"5050_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4425","DOI":"10.2147\/DMSO.S489819","volume":"17","author":"Z Xia","year":"2024","unstructured":"Xia Z, Cao S, Li T, Qin Y, Zhong Y. Risk prediction models for mild cognitive impairment in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes. 2024;17:4425\u201338. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2147\/DMSO.S489819.","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes"},{"key":"5050_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gerinurse.2024.05.018","volume":"58","author":"Q Yu","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yu Q, Jiang X, Yan J, Yu H. Development and validation of a risk prediction model for mild cognitive impairment in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Geriatr Nurs. 2024;58:119\u201326. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.gerinurse.2024.05.018.","journal-title":"Geriatr Nurs"},{"key":"5050_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Li F, Zhao S, Wu T, Yang S, Duan Y, Sun J, et al. Predicting mild cognitive impairment in type 2 diabetes: a machine learning approach. J Diabetes Res. 2025; 2025:7304414. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/jdr\/7304414.","DOI":"10.1155\/jdr\/7304414"},{"key":"5050_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1307837","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2024.1307837","volume":"15","author":"Y Jiang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Jiang Y, Liu X, Gao H, Yan J, Cao Y. A new nomogram model for the individualized prediction of mild cognitive impairment in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2024;15:1307837. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fendo.2024.1307837.","journal-title":"Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)"},{"key":"5050_CR15","first-page":"72","volume":"25","author":"P Drouin","year":"1999","unstructured":"Drouin P, Blickle JF, Charbonnel B, Eschwege E, Guillausseau PJ, Plouin PF, et al. [Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus: the new criteria]. Diabetes Metab. 1999;25:72\u201383.","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab"},{"key":"5050_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2907","DOI":"10.1097\/CM9.0000000000003431","volume":"137","author":"Clinical practice guideline for the management of hypertension in china","year":"2024","unstructured":"Clinical practice guideline for the management of hypertension in china. Chin Med J (Engl). 2024;137:2907\u201352. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/CM9.0000000000003431.","journal-title":"Chin Med J (Engl)"},{"key":"5050_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e44","DOI":"10.1161\/STR.0000000000000116","volume":"48","author":"EE Smith","year":"2017","unstructured":"Smith EE, Saposnik G, Biessels GJ, Doubal FN, Fornage M, Gorelick PB, et al. Prevention of stroke in patients with silent cerebrovascular disease: a scientific statement for healthcare professionals from the american heart association\/american stroke association. Stroke. 2017;48:e44\u201371. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1161\/STR.0000000000000116.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"5050_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.2214\/ajr.149.2.351","volume":"149","author":"F Fazekas","year":"1987","unstructured":"Fazekas F, Chawluk JB, Alavi A, Hurtig HI, Zimmerman RA. MR signal abnormalities at 1.5 t in alzheimer\u2019s dementia and normal aging. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1987;149:351\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2214\/ajr.149.2.351.","journal-title":"AJR Am J Roentgenol"},{"key":"5050_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2005.53221.x","volume":"53","author":"ZS Nasreddine","year":"2005","unstructured":"Nasreddine ZS, Phillips NA, B\u00e9dirian V, Charbonneau S, Whitehead V, Collin I, et al. The montreal cognitive assessment, MoCA: a brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2005;53:695\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2005.53221.x.","journal-title":"J Am Geriatr Soc"},{"key":"5050_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.archger.2012.05.008","volume":"56","author":"J Hu","year":"2013","unstructured":"Hu J, Zhou W, Hu S, Huang M, Wei N, Qi H, et al. Cross-cultural difference and validation of the chinese version of montreal cognitive assessment in older adults residing in eastern china: preliminary findings. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2013;56:38\u201343. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.archger.2012.05.008.","journal-title":"Arch Gerontol Geriatr"},{"key":"5050_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1403","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-141278","volume":"43","author":"J Tan","year":"2015","unstructured":"Tan J, Li N, Gao J, Wang L, Zhao Y, Yu B, et al. Optimal cutoff scores for dementia and mild cognitive impairment of the montreal cognitive assessment among elderly and oldest-old chinese population. J Alzheimers Dis. 2015;43:1403\u201312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/JAD-141278.","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"5050_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e52107","DOI":"10.2196\/52107","volume":"26","author":"P Thanh Phuc","year":"2024","unstructured":"Thanh Phuc P, Nguyen P, Nguyen NN, Hsu M, Le NQK, Tran Q, et al. Early detection of dementia in populations with type 2 diabetes: predictive analytics using machine learning approach. J Med Internet Res. 2024;26:e52107. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2196\/52107.","journal-title":"J Med Internet Res"},{"key":"5050_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.2147\/CIA.S355242","volume":"17","author":"Z Ma","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ma Z, Wu Y, Cui H, Yao G, Bian H. Factors influencing post-stroke cognitive impairment in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Clin Interv Aging. 2022;17:653\u201364. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2147\/CIA.S355242.","journal-title":"Clin Interv Aging"},{"key":"5050_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3261","DOI":"10.1111\/jocn.17508","volume":"34","author":"Q Yu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Yu Q, Yu H. Development and validation of a risk prediction model for cognitive frailty in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Clin Nurs. 2025;34:3261\u201375. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/jocn.17508.","journal-title":"J Clin Nurs"},{"key":"5050_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1213711","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2023.1213711","volume":"14","author":"X Zhang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zhang X, Xie J, You X, Gong H. Risk factors and drug discovery for cognitive impairment in type 2 diabetes mellitus using artificial intelligence interpretation and graph neural networks. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2023;14:1213711. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fendo.2023.1213711.","journal-title":"Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)"},{"key":"5050_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(13)70060-7","volume":"12","author":"JM Wardlaw","year":"2013","unstructured":"Wardlaw JM, Smith C, Dichgans M. Mechanisms of sporadic cerebral small vessel disease: insights from neuroimaging. Lancet Neurol. 2013;12:483\u201397. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S1474-4422(13)70060-7.","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"5050_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121515","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2025.121515","volume":"321","author":"Y Qiu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Qiu Y, Hu Y, Ding W, Fu Q, Hu W, Wang Y, et al. White matter hyperintensity-associated iron overload links glymphatic system dysfunction to cognitive impairment in cerebral small vessel disease. NeuroImage. 2025;321:121515. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2025.121515.","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"5050_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2026.103133","volume":"118","author":"X Ran","year":"2026","unstructured":"Ran X, Wang M, Huang J, Kuang N, Tian P, Wu J, et al. Mechanistic research and therapeutic prospects of alternative splicing in neurodegenerative diseases. Ageing Res Rev. 2026;118:103133. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.arr.2026.103133.","journal-title":"Ageing Res Rev"},{"key":"5050_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/glr232","volume":"67","author":"A Scuteri","year":"2012","unstructured":"Scuteri A, Modestino A, Frattari A, Di Daniele N, Tesauro M. Occurrence of hypotension in older participants. Which 24-hour ABPM parameter better correlate with? J Gerontol Biol Sci Med Sci. 2012;67:804\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/gerona\/glr232.","journal-title":"J Gerontol Biol Sci Med Sci"},{"key":"5050_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1097\/HJH.0000000000002621","volume":"39","author":"A Scuteri","year":"2021","unstructured":"Scuteri A, Benetos A, Sierra C, Coca A, Chicherio C, Frisoni GB, et al. Routine assessment of cognitive function in older patients with hypertension seen by primary care physicians: why and how-a decision-making support from the working group on \u2018hypertension and the brain\u2019 of the european society of hypertension and from the european geriatric medicine society. J Hypertens. 2021;39:90\u2013100. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/HJH.0000000000002621.","journal-title":"J Hypertens"},{"key":"5050_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e036253","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.124.036253","volume":"14","author":"R Oppong","year":"2025","unstructured":"Oppong R, Orru V, Marongiu M, Qian Y, Sidore C, Delitala A, et al. Age-associated increase in growth differentiation factor 15 levels correlates with central arterial stiffness and predicts all-cause mortality in a sardinian population cohort. J Am Heart Assoc. 2025;14:e036253. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1161\/JAHA.124.036253.","journal-title":"J Am Heart Assoc"},{"key":"5050_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-022-00699-w","volume":"45","author":"M Alghatrif","year":"2023","unstructured":"Alghatrif M, Lakatta EG, Morrell CH, Fegatelli DA, Fiorillo E, Marongiu M, et al. Dilated hypertrophic phenotype of the carotid artery is associated with accelerated age-associated central arterial stiffening. Geroscience. 2023;45:1001\u201313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11357-022-00699-w.","journal-title":"Geroscience"},{"key":"5050_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2016.04.172","volume":"217","author":"A Scuteri","year":"2016","unstructured":"Scuteri A, Morrell CH, Orru\u2019 M, Alghatrif M, Saba PS, Terracciano A, et al. Gender specific profiles of white coat and masked hypertension impacts on arterial structure and function in the SardiNIA study. Int J Cardiol. 2016;217:92\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijcard.2016.04.172.","journal-title":"Int J Cardiol"},{"key":"5050_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5853\/jos.2025.04168","volume":"28","author":"J Chung","year":"2026","unstructured":"Chung J, Oh H, Gwak D, Kim D. Multimodal magnetic resonance imaging signatures of white matter hyperintensities: mechanistic insights into pathobiological heterogeneity. J Stroke. 2026;28:1\u201328. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5853\/jos.2025.04168.","journal-title":"J Stroke"},{"key":"5050_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-018-0442-3","volume":"10","author":"S Lee","year":"2018","unstructured":"Lee S, Han K, Cho H, Park Y, Kwon H, Kang G, et al. Variability in metabolic parameters and risk of dementia: a nationwide population-based study. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2018;10:110. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13195-018-0442-3.","journal-title":"Alzheimers Res Ther"},{"key":"5050_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1349","DOI":"10.2337\/db08-0063","volume":"57","author":"A Ceriello","year":"2008","unstructured":"Ceriello A, Esposito K, Piconi L, Ihnat MA, Thorpe JE, Testa R, et al. Oscillating glucose is more deleterious to endothelial function and oxidative stress than mean glucose in normal and type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes. 2008;57:1349\u201354. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2337\/db08-0063.","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"5050_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102739","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2025.102739","volume":"108","author":"Y Cao","year":"2025","unstructured":"Cao Y, Xu Y, Cao M, Chen N, Zeng Q, Lai MKP, et al. Fluid-based biomarkers for neurodegenerative diseases. Ageing Res Rev. 2025;108:102739. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.arr.2025.102739.","journal-title":"Ageing Res Rev"},{"key":"5050_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1681","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.295.14.1681","volume":"295","author":"L Monnier","year":"2006","unstructured":"Monnier L, Mas E, Ginet C, Michel F, Villon L, Cristol J, et al. Activation of oxidative stress by acute glucose fluctuations compared with sustained chronic hyperglycemia in patients with type 2 diabetes. JAMA. 2006;295:1681\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jama.295.14.1681.","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"5050_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e70001","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.70001","volume":"21","author":"LM Fonseca","year":"2025","unstructured":"Fonseca LM, Hawks ZW, Beeri MS, Jung L, Kudva Y, Rizvi S, et al. Cognitive vulnerability to glucose fluctuations: a digital phenotype of neurodegeneration. Alzheimers Dement. 2025;21:e70001. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/alz.70001.","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement"},{"key":"5050_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1161\/01.str.27.2.219","volume":"27","author":"P Zunker","year":"1996","unstructured":"Zunker P, Schick A, Buschmann HC, Georgiadis D, Nabavi DG, Edelmann M, et al. Hyperinsulinism and cerebral microangiopathy. Stroke. 1996;27:219\u201323. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1161\/01.str.27.2.219.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"5050_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ma C, Yang L, Wang L. Correlation of serum c-peptide, soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1, and NLRP3 inflammasome-related inflammatory factor interleukin-1\u03b2 after brain magnetic resonance imaging examination with cerebral small vessel disease. Contrast Media Mol Imaging. 2022;2022:4379847. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2022\/4379847","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/4379847"},{"key":"5050_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.12485","volume":"21","author":"CW Yoon","year":"2014","unstructured":"Yoon CW, Kang M, Shin HY, Jeon S, Yang J, Kim ST, et al. Higher c-peptide levels are associated with regional cortical thinning in 1093 cognitively normal subjects. Eur J Neurol. 2014;21:1318\u201323. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ene.12485. e80- e81.","journal-title":"Eur J Neurol"},{"key":"5050_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e15469","DOI":"10.1111\/dme.15469","volume":"42","author":"Y Lin","year":"2025","unstructured":"Lin Y, Mccrimmon RJ, Pearson ER. Exploring the potential role of c-peptide in type 2 diabetes management. Diabet Med. 2025;42:e15469. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/dme.15469.","journal-title":"Diabet Med"},{"key":"5050_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1651","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.165.14.1651","volume":"165","author":"O Okereke","year":"2005","unstructured":"Okereke O, Hankinson SE, Hu FB, Grodstein F. Plasma c peptide level and cognitive function among older women without diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:1651\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/archinte.165.14.1651.","journal-title":"Arch Intern Med"},{"key":"5050_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1097\/01.JGP.0000240983.25359.00","volume":"14","author":"O Okereke","year":"2006","unstructured":"Okereke O, Kang JH, Gaziano JM, Ma J, Stampfer MJ, Grodstein F. Plasma c-peptide and cognitive performance in older men without diabetes. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2006;14:1041\u201350. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/01.JGP.0000240983.25359.00.","journal-title":"Am J Geriatr Psychiatry"},{"key":"5050_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385108","DOI":"10.1155\/2008\/385108","volume":"2008","author":"N Marx","year":"2008","unstructured":"Marx N, Walcher D. C-peptide and atherogenesis: c-peptide as a mediator of lesion development in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus? Exp Diabetes Res. 2008;2008:385108. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2008\/385108.","journal-title":"Exp Diabetes Res"},{"key":"5050_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1601541","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2025.1601541","volume":"12","author":"S Qian","year":"2025","unstructured":"Qian S, Wen Q, Jiang D, Wang S, Hu X. The association between weight-adjusted-waist index and cognitive function: the cross-sectional and longitudinal evidence from CHARLS. Front Nutr. 2025;12:1601541. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnut.2025.1601541.","journal-title":"Front Nutr"},{"key":"5050_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2016.10.006","volume":"1863","author":"V Kothari","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kothari V, Luo Y, Tornabene T, O\u2019Neill AM, Greene MW, Geetha T, et al. High fat diet induces brain insulin resistance and cognitive impairment in mice. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis. 2017;1863:499\u2013508. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bbadis.2016.10.006.","journal-title":"Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis"},{"key":"5050_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05488","volume":"444","author":"J Despr\u00e9s","year":"2006","unstructured":"Despr\u00e9s J, Lemieux I. Abdominal obesity and metabolic syndrome. Nature. 2006;444:881\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nature05488.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"5050_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00285287","volume":"32","author":"T Deckert","year":"1989","unstructured":"Deckert T, Feldt-Rasmussen B, Borch-Johnsen K, Jensen T, Kofoed-Enevoldsen A. Albuminuria reflects widespread vascular damage. The steno hypothesis. Diabetologia. 1989;32:219\u201326. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/BF00285287.","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"5050_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0321519","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0321519","volume":"20","author":"Y Teng","year":"2025","unstructured":"Teng Y, Zhang J, Yang B, Luo Q, Xue Y, Zhang M. Elevated urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio as a risk factor for cognitive impairment in older adults: a cross-sectional analysis of NHANES data. PLoS ONE. 2025;20:e0321519. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0321519.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"5050_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1038\/s41581-020-0266-9","volume":"16","author":"D Viggiano","year":"2020","unstructured":"Viggiano D, Wagner CA, Martino G, Nedergaard M, Zoccali C, Unwin R, et al. Mechanisms of cognitive dysfunction in CKD. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2020;16:452\u201369. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41581-020-0266-9.","journal-title":"Nat Rev Nephrol"},{"key":"5050_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(19)30405-X","volume":"8","author":"TT van Sloten","year":"2020","unstructured":"van Sloten TT, Sedaghat S, Carnethon MR, Launer LJ, Stehouwer CDA. Cerebral microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes: stroke, cognitive dysfunction, and depression. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2020;8:325\u201336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2213-8587(19)30405-X.","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol"},{"key":"5050_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-023-02920-9","volume":"21","author":"N Kuang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kuang N, Liu Z, Yu G, Wu X, Becker B, Fan H, et al. Neurodevelopmental risk and adaptation as a model for comorbidity among internalizing and externalizing disorders: genomics and cell-specific expression enriched morphometric study. BMC Med. 2023;21:291. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12916-023-02920-9.","journal-title":"BMC Med"},{"key":"5050_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4480","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-59110-9","volume":"16","author":"X Wu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Wu X, Zhang K, Kuang N, Kong X, Cao M, Lian Z, et al. Developing brain asymmetry shapes cognitive and psychiatric outcomes in adolescence. Nat Commun. 2025;16:4480. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41467-025-59110-9.","journal-title":"Nat Commun"}],"container-title":["BMC Neurology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12883-026-05050-w","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12883-026-05050-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12883-026-05050-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T13:11:16Z","timestamp":1789650676000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s12883-026-05050-w"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["5050"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12883-026-05050-w","relation":{},"ISSN":["1471-2377"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1471-2377","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]]},"assertion":[{"value":"25 April 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"3 June 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"18 June 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Cangzhou Central Hospital (Ethics Approval No. 2025-006-01). All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments. As this study was retrospective in nature and all data were anonymized, the requirement for informed consent was waived by the Ethics Committee of Cangzhou Central Hospital.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent for publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"588"}}