{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,7]],"date-time":"2026-11-07T00:12:42Z","timestamp":1794010362378,"version":"4.8.0"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,13]],"date-time":"2021-11-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1636761600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,13]],"date-time":"2021-11-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1636761600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Public Health"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Drug abuse is detrimental, and excessive drug usage is a worldwide problem. Drug usage typically begins during adolescence. Factors for drug abuse include a variety of protective and risk factors. Hence, this systematic review aimed to determine the risk and protective factors of drug abuse among adolescents worldwide.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) was adopted for the review which utilized three main journal databases, namely PubMed, EBSCOhost, and Web of Science. Tobacco addiction and alcohol abuse were excluded in this review. Retrieved citations were screened, and the data were extracted based on strict inclusion and exclusion criteria. Inclusion criteria include the article being full text, published from the year 2016 until 2020 and provided via open access resource or subscribed to by the institution. Quality assessment was done using Mixed Methods Appraisal Tools (MMAT) version 2018 to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. Given the heterogeneity of the included studies, a descriptive synthesis of the included studies was undertaken.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Out of 425 articles identified, 22 quantitative articles and one qualitative article were included in the final review. Both the risk and protective factors obtained were categorized into three main domains: individual, family, and community factors. The individual risk factors identified were traits of high impulsivity; rebelliousness; emotional regulation impairment, low religious, pain catastrophic, homework completeness, total screen time and alexithymia; the experience of maltreatment or a negative upbringing; having psychiatric disorders such as conduct problems and major depressive disorder; previous e-cigarette exposure; behavioral addiction; low-perceived risk; high-perceived drug accessibility; and high-attitude to use synthetic drugs. The familial risk factors were prenatal maternal smoking; poor maternal psychological control; low parental education; negligence; poor supervision; uncontrolled pocket money; and the presence of substance-using family members. One community risk factor reported was having peers who abuse drugs. The protective factors determined were individual traits of optimism; a high level of mindfulness; having social phobia; having strong beliefs against substance abuse; the desire to maintain one\u2019s health; high paternal awareness of drug abuse; school connectedness; structured activity and having strong religious beliefs.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The outcomes of this review suggest a complex interaction between a multitude of factors influencing adolescent drug abuse. Therefore, successful adolescent drug abuse prevention programs will require extensive work at all levels of domains.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-11906-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,13]],"date-time":"2021-11-13T18:02:28Z","timestamp":1636826548000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":430,"title":["Risk and protective factors of drug abuse among adolescents: a systematic review"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Azmawati Mohammed","family":"Nawi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rozmi","family":"Ismail","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fauziah","family":"Ibrahim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohd Rohaizat","family":"Hassan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohd Rizal Abdul","family":"Manaf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Noh","family":"Amit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Norhayati","family":"Ibrahim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nurul Shafini","family":"Shafurdin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"11906_CR1","volume-title":"World Drug Report 2018 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.18X.XI.9. United Nation publication)","author":"Nation, U","year":"2018","unstructured":"Nation, U. World Drug Report 2018 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.18X.XI.9. United Nation publication). 2018. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.unodc.org\/wdr2018"},{"issue":"3","key":"11906_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(15)00508-8","volume":"3","author":"L Degenhardt","year":"2016","unstructured":"Degenhardt L, Stockings E, Patton G, Hall WD, Lynskey M. The increasing global health priority of substance use in young people. Lancet Psychiatry. 2016;3(3):251\u201364. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2215-0366(15)00508-8 Elsevier Ltd.","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"11906_CR3","unstructured":"Ritchie H, Roser M. Drug Use - Our World in Data: Global Change Data Lab; 2019. https:\/\/ourworldindata.org\/drug-use [10 June 2020]"},{"issue":"3","key":"11906_CR4","first-page":"251","volume":"19","author":"S Holm","year":"2014","unstructured":"Holm S, Sandberg S, Kolind T, Hesse M. The importance of cannabis culture in young adult cannabis use. J Subst Abus. 2014;19(3):251\u20136.","journal-title":"J Subst Abus"},{"issue":"Pt A","key":"11906_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2017.11.010","volume":"87","author":"SJ Luikinga","year":"2018","unstructured":"Luikinga SJ, Kim JH, Perry CJ. Developmental perspectives on methamphetamine abuse: exploring adolescent vulnerabilities on brain and behavior. Progress Neuro Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2018;87(Pt A):78\u201384. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2017.11.010 Elsevier Inc.","journal-title":"Progress Neuro Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry"},{"issue":"1","key":"11906_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.5901\/mjss.2015.v6n5s1p452","volume":"6","author":"R Ismail","year":"2015","unstructured":"Ismail R, Ghazalli MN, Ibrahim N. Not all developmental assets can predict negative mental health outcomes of disadvantaged youth: a case of suburban Kuala Lumpur. Mediterr J Soc Sci. 2015;6(1):452\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5901\/mjss.2015.v6n5s1p452.","journal-title":"Mediterr J Soc Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"11906_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2006.12.001","volume":"86","author":"F Crews","year":"2007","unstructured":"Crews F, He J, Hodge C. Adolescent cortical development: a critical period of vulnerability for addiction. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2007;86(2):189\u201399. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.pbb.2006.12.001.","journal-title":"Pharmacol Biochem Behav"},{"key":"11906_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Schulte MT, Hser YI. Substance use and associated health conditions throughout the lifespan. Public Health Rev. 2013;35(2). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/bf03391702 Technosdar Ltd.","DOI":"10.1007\/bf03391702"},{"key":"11906_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4172\/2165-7548.1000330","volume-title":"Substance Abuse among Youth: A Harsh Reality","author":"S Somani","year":"2016","unstructured":"Somani, S.; Meghani S. Substance Abuse among Youth: A Harsh Reality 2016. doi:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4172\/2165-7548.1000330, 6, 4."},{"key":"11906_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2016.01.022","volume":"161","author":"L Drabble","year":"2016","unstructured":"Drabble L, Trocki KF, Klinger JL. Religiosity as a protective factor for hazardous drinking and drug use among sexual minority and heterosexual women: findings from the National Alcohol Survey. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2016;161:127\u201334. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2016.01.022.","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend"},{"issue":"1","key":"11906_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.15270\/52-1-482","volume":"52","author":"V Goliath","year":"2016","unstructured":"Goliath V, Pretorius B. Peer risk and protective factors in adolescence: Implications for drug use prevention. Soc Work. 2016;52(1):113\u201329. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15270\/52-1-482.","journal-title":"Soc Work"},{"issue":"3","key":"11906_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acap.2015.12.016","volume":"16","author":"LR Guerrero","year":"2016","unstructured":"Guerrero LR, Dudovitz R, Chung PJ, Dosanjh KK, Wong MD. Grit: a potential protective factor against substance use and other risk behaviors among Latino adolescents. Acad Pediatr. 2016;16(3):275\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.acap.2015.12.016.","journal-title":"Acad Pediatr"},{"key":"11906_CR13","unstructured":"National Institutes on Drug Abuse. What are risk factors and protective factors? National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA); 2003. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.drugabuse.gov\/publications\/preventing-drug-use-among-children-adolescents\/chapter-1-risk-factors-protective-factors\/what-are-risk-factors"},{"issue":"5","key":"11906_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.3109\/14659891.2015.1093558","volume":"21","author":"NN Nguyen","year":"2016","unstructured":"Nguyen NN, Newhill CE. The role of religiosity as a protective factor against marijuana use among African American, White, Asian, and Hispanic adolescents. J Subst Abus. 2016;21(5):547\u201352. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3109\/14659891.2015.1093558.","journal-title":"J Subst Abus"},{"key":"11906_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmedr.2016.01.012","volume":"3","author":"S Schinke","year":"2016","unstructured":"Schinke S, Schwinn T, Hopkins J, Wahlstrom L. Drug abuse risk and protective factors among Hispanic adolescents. Prev Med Rep. 2016;3:185\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.pmedr.2016.01.012.","journal-title":"Prev Med Rep"},{"issue":"9421","key":"11906_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1579","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)16200-4","volume":"363","author":"J Macleod","year":"2004","unstructured":"Macleod J, Oakes R, Copello A, Crome PI, Egger PM, Hickman M, et al. Psychological and social sequelae of cannabis and other illicit drug use by young people: a systematic review of longitudinal, general population studies. Lancet. 2004;363(9421):1579\u201388. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)16200-4.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"9584","key":"11906_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(07)61162-3","volume":"370","author":"TH Moore","year":"2007","unstructured":"Moore TH, Zammit S, Lingford-Hughes A, Barnes TR, Jones PB, Burke M, et al. Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: a systematic review. Lancet. 2007;370(9584):319\u201328. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0140-6736(07)61162-3.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"2","key":"11906_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881105049040","volume":"19","author":"DM Semple","year":"2005","unstructured":"Semple DM, McIntosh AM, Lawrie SM. Cannabis as a risk factor for psychosis: systematic review. J Psychopharmacol. 2005;19(2):187\u201394. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0269881105049040.","journal-title":"J Psychopharmacol"},{"issue":"1","key":"11906_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.15288\/jsad.2015.76.5","volume":"76","author":"JE Nargiso","year":"2015","unstructured":"Nargiso JE, Ballard EL, Skeer MR. A systematic review of risk and protective factors associated with nonmedical use of prescription drugs among youth in the united states: A social ecological perspective. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2015;76(1):5\u201320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15288\/jsad.2015.76.5.","journal-title":"J Stud Alcohol Drugs"},{"issue":"3","key":"11906_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1157\/13106811","volume":"21","author":"M Guxensa","year":"2007","unstructured":"Guxensa M, Nebot M, Ariza C, Ochoa D. Factors associated with the onset of cannabis use: a systematic review of cohort studies. Gac Sanit. 2007;21(3):252\u201360. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1157\/13106811.","journal-title":"Gac Sanit"},{"issue":"Issue 3","key":"11906_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-4642(18)30022-1","volume":"2","author":"MS Susan","year":"2018","unstructured":"Susan MS, Peter SA, Dakshitha W, George CP. The age of adolescence. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2018;2(Issue 3):223\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2352-4642(18)30022-1.","journal-title":"Lancet Child Adolesc Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"11906_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.3233\/EFI-180221","volume":"34","author":"QN Hong","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hong QN, F\u00e0bregues S, Bartlett G, Boardman F, Cargo M, Dagenais P, et al. The mixed methods appraisal tool (MMAT) version 2018 for information professionals and researchers. Educ Inf. 2018;34(4):285\u201391. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/EFI-180221.","journal-title":"Educ Inf"},{"issue":"3","key":"11906_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.11613\/bm.2012.031","volume":"22","author":"ML McHugh","year":"2012","unstructured":"McHugh ML. Interrater reliability: The kappa statistic. Biochem Med. 2012;22(3):276\u201382. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.11613\/bm.2012.031.","journal-title":"Biochem Med"},{"issue":"12","key":"11906_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e976","DOI":"10.1038\/tp.2016.247","volume":"6","author":"CAM Cecil","year":"2016","unstructured":"Cecil CAM, Walton E, Smith RG, Viding E, McCrory EJ, Relton CL, et al. DNA methylation and substance-use risk: a prospective, genome-wide study spanning gestation to adolescence. Transl Psychiatry. 2016;6(12):e976. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/tp.2016.247 Nature Publishing Group.","journal-title":"Transl Psychiatry"},{"key":"11906_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.childyouth.2017.10.027","volume":"83","author":"JM Kobulsky","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kobulsky JM. Gender differences in pathways from physical and sexual abuse to early substance use. Child Youth Serv Rev. 2017;83:25\u201332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.childyouth.2017.10.027.","journal-title":"Child Youth Serv Rev"},{"issue":"4","key":"11906_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.15288\/jsad.2017.78.521","volume":"78","author":"JW Luk","year":"2017","unstructured":"Luk JW, King KM, McCarty CA, McCauley E, Stoep A. Prospective effects of parenting on substance use and problems across Asian\/Pacific islander and European American youth: Tests of moderated mediation. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2017;78(4):521\u201330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15288\/jsad.2017.78.521.","journal-title":"J Stud Alcohol Drugs"},{"issue":"2","key":"11906_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1007\/s11121-018-0882-9","volume":"20","author":"K Guttmannova","year":"2019","unstructured":"Guttmannova K, Skinner ML, Oesterle S, White HR, Catalano RF, Hawkins JD. The interplay between marijuana-specific risk factors and marijuana use over the course of adolescence. Prev Sci. 2019;20(2):235\u201345. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11121-018-0882-9.","journal-title":"Prev Sci"},{"key":"11906_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2017.02.012","volume":"95","author":"G Dorard","year":"2017","unstructured":"Dorard G, Bungener C, Phan O, Edel Y, Corcos M, Berthoz S. Is alexithymia related to cannabis use disorder? Results from a case-control study in outpatient adolescent cannabis abusers. J Psychosom Res. 2017;95:74\u201380. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2017.02.012.","journal-title":"J Psychosom Res"},{"key":"11906_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2017.05.021","volume":"74","author":"CWI Chuang","year":"2017","unstructured":"Chuang CWI, Sussman S, Stone MD, Pang RD, Chou CP, Leventhal AM, et al. Impulsivity and history of behavioral addictions are associated with drug use in adolescents. Addict Behav. 2017;74:41\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.addbeh.2017.05.021.","journal-title":"Addict Behav"},{"issue":"4","key":"11906_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1177\/1077559516669443","volume":"21","author":"J Gabrielli","year":"2016","unstructured":"Gabrielli J, Jackson Y, Brown S. Associations between maltreatment history and severity of substance use behavior in youth in Foster Care. Child Maltreat. 2016;21(4):298\u2013307. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1077559516669443.","journal-title":"Child Maltreat"},{"key":"11906_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2016.10.007","volume":"169","author":"R Khoddam","year":"2016","unstructured":"Khoddam R, Jackson NJ, Leventhal AM. Internalizing symptoms and conduct problems: redundant, incremental, or interactive risk factors for adolescent substance use during the first year of high school? Drug Alcohol Depend. 2016;169:48\u201355. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2016.10.007.","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend"},{"issue":"4","key":"11906_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215824401773303","DOI":"10.1177\/2158244017733031","volume":"7","author":"SD Li","year":"2017","unstructured":"Li SD, Zhang X, Tang W, Xia Y. Predictors and implications of synthetic drug use among adolescents in the gambling Capital of China. SAGE Open. 2017;7(4):215824401773303. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/2158244017733031.","journal-title":"SAGE Open"},{"issue":"4","key":"11906_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.15171\/hpp.2019.38","volume":"9","author":"S Marin","year":"2019","unstructured":"Marin S, Heshmatian E, Nadrian H, Fakhari A, Mohammadpoorasl A. Associations between optimism, tobacco smoking and substance abuse among Iranian high school students. Health Promot Perspect. 2019;9(4):279\u201384. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15171\/hpp.2019.38.","journal-title":"Health Promot Perspect"},{"issue":"5","key":"11906_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntv217","volume":"18","author":"RA Miech","year":"2015","unstructured":"Miech RA, O\u2019Malley PM, Johnston LD, Patrick ME. E-cigarettes and the drug use patterns of adolescents. Nicotine Tob Res. 2015;18(5):654\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ntr\/ntv217.","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob Res"},{"key":"11906_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2019.03.029","volume":"201","author":"JP Schleimer","year":"2019","unstructured":"Schleimer JP, Rivera-Aguirre AE, Castillo-Carniglia A, Laqueur HS, Rudolph KE, Su\u00e1rez H, et al. Investigating how perceived risk and availability of marijuana relate to marijuana use among adolescents in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay over time. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2019;201:115\u201326. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2019.03.029.","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend"},{"key":"11906_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2015.11.020","volume":"52","author":"DE Traube","year":"2016","unstructured":"Traube DE, Yarnell LM, Schrager SM. Differences in polysubstance use among youth in the child welfare system: toward a better understanding of the highest-risk teens. Child Abuse Negl. 2016;52:146\u201357. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chiabu.2015.11.020.","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl"},{"issue":"11","key":"11906_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1486","DOI":"10.1080\/10826084.2017.1289225","volume":"52","author":"JD Wilson","year":"2017","unstructured":"Wilson JD, Vo H, Matson P, Adger H, Barnett G, Fishman M. Trait mindfulness and progression to injection use in youth with opioid addiction. Subst Use Misuse. 2017;52(11):1486\u201393. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10826084.2017.1289225.","journal-title":"Subst Use Misuse"},{"key":"11906_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106314","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2020.106314","volume":"104","author":"GF Dash","year":"2020","unstructured":"Dash GF, Feldstein Ewing SW, Murphy C, Hudson KA, Wilson AC. Contextual risk among adolescents receiving opioid prescriptions for acute pain in pediatric ambulatory care settings. Addict Behav. 2020;104:106314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.addbeh.2020.106314 Epub 2020 Jan 11. PMID: 31962289; PMCID: PMC7024039.","journal-title":"Addict Behav"},{"issue":"14","key":"11906_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2420","DOI":"10.1080\/10826084.2020.1823420","volume":"55","author":"V Osborne","year":"2020","unstructured":"Osborne V, Serdarevic M, Striley CW, Nixon SJ, Winterstein AG, Cottler LB. Age of first use of prescription opioids and prescription opioid non-medical use among older adolescents. Substance Use Misuse. 2020;55(14):2420\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10826084.2020.1823420.","journal-title":"Substance Use Misuse"},{"issue":"5","key":"11906_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1080\/14659891.2020.1736669","volume":"25","author":"AME Zuckermann","year":"2020","unstructured":"Zuckermann AME, Qian W, Battista K, Jiang Y, de Groh M, Leatherdale ST. Factors influencing the non-medical use of prescription opioids among youth: results from the COMPASS study. J Subst Abus. 2020;25(5):507\u201314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/14659891.2020.1736669.","journal-title":"J Subst Abus"},{"issue":"3","key":"11906_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1089\/lgbt.2016.0132","volume":"4","author":"KT De Pedro","year":"2017","unstructured":"De Pedro KT, Esqueda MC, Gilreath TD. School protective factors and substance use among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adolescents in California public schools. LGBT Health. 2017;4(3):210\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1089\/lgbt.2016.0132.","journal-title":"LGBT Health"},{"issue":"11","key":"11906_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1765","DOI":"10.1080\/10826084.2020.1762652","volume":"55","author":"NS Spillane","year":"2020","unstructured":"Spillane NS, Schick MR, Kirk-Provencher KT, Hill DC, Wyatt J, Jackson KM. Structured and unstructured activities and alcohol and marijuana use in middle school: the role of availability and engagement. Substance Use Misuse. 2020;55(11):1765\u201373. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10826084.2020.1762652.","journal-title":"Substance Use Misuse"},{"key":"11906_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ogunsola OO, Fatusi AO. Risk and protective factors for adolescent substance use: a comparative study of secondary school students in rural and urban areas of Osun state, Nigeria. Int J Adolesc Med Health. 2016;29(3). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515\/ijamh-2015-0096.","DOI":"10.1515\/ijamh-2015-0096"},{"key":"11906_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmph.2019.100487","volume":"9","author":"A Doggett","year":"2019","unstructured":"Doggett A, Qian W, Godin K, De Groh M, Leatherdale ST. Examining the association between exposure to various screen time sedentary behaviours and cannabis use among youth in the COMPASS study. SSM Population Health. 2019;9:100487. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ssmph.2019.100487.","journal-title":"SSM Population Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"11906_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1007\/s10943-019-00789-8","volume":"59","author":"RA Afifi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Afifi RA, El Asmar K, Bteddini D, Assi M, Yassin N, Bitar S, et al. Bullying victimization and use of substances in high school: does religiosity moderate the association? J Relig Health. 2020;59(1):334\u201350. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10943-019-00789-8.","journal-title":"J Relig Health"},{"key":"11906_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"El Kazdouh H, El-Ammari A, Bouftini S, El Fakir S, El Achhab Y. Adolescents, parents and teachers\u2019 perceptions of risk and protective factors of substance use in Moroccan adolescents: a qualitative study. Substance Abuse Treat Prevent Policy. 2018;13(1):\u201331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13011-018-0169-y.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13011-018-0169-y"},{"issue":"1","key":"11906_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/0163278710380124","volume":"34","author":"S Sussman","year":"2011","unstructured":"Sussman S, Lisha N, Griffiths M. Prevalence of the addictions: a problem of the majority or the minority? Eval Health Prof. 2011;34(1):3\u201356. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0163278710380124.","journal-title":"Eval Health Prof"},{"issue":"2","key":"11906_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2009.11.004","volume":"30","author":"A Aldao","year":"2010","unstructured":"Aldao A, Nolen-Hoeksema S, Schweizer S. Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: a meta-analytic review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2010;30(2):217\u201337. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cpr.2009.11.004.","journal-title":"Clin Psychol Rev"},{"issue":"6","key":"11906_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1080\/1606635031000062074","volume":"11","author":"T Ricketts","year":"2003","unstructured":"Ricketts T, Macaskill A. Gambling as emotion management: developing a grounded theory of problem gambling. Addict Res Theory. 2003;11(6):383\u2013400. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/1606635031000062074.","journal-title":"Addict Res Theory"},{"issue":"5","key":"11906_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1007\/s10608-011-9384-9","volume":"36","author":"AD Williams","year":"2012","unstructured":"Williams AD, Grisham JR. Impulsivity, emotion regulation, and mindful attentional focus in compulsive buying. Cogn Ther Res. 2012;36(5):451\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10608-011-9384-9.","journal-title":"Cogn Ther Res"},{"key":"11906_CR51","volume-title":"Drugs, brains, and behavior the science of addiction national institute on drug abuse (nida)","author":"National Institutes on Drug Abuse","year":"2014","unstructured":"National Institutes on Drug Abuse. Drugs, brains, and behavior the science of addiction national institute on drug abuse (nida). 2014. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.drugabuse.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/soa_2014.pdf"},{"issue":"6","key":"11906_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.29252\/jrh.8.6.531","volume":"8","author":"ME Hokm Abadi","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hokm Abadi ME, Bakhti M, Nazemi M, Sedighi S, Mirzadeh Toroghi E. The relationship between personality traits and drug type among substance abuse. J Res Health. 2018;8(6):531\u201340.","journal-title":"J Res Health"},{"key":"11906_CR53","first-page":"63","volume-title":"Psychological maltreatment and its relationship with substance abuse among university students in Kingston, Jamaica","author":"S Longman-Mills","year":"2015","unstructured":"Longman-Mills S, Haye W, Hamilton H, Brands B, Wright MGM, Cumsille F, et al. Psychological maltreatment and its relationship with substance abuse among university students in Kingston, Jamaica, vol. 24. Florianopolis: Texto Contexto Enferm; 2015. p. 63\u20138."},{"issue":"1","key":"11906_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1037\/a0031920","volume":"6","author":"SE Rosenkranz","year":"2014","unstructured":"Rosenkranz SE, Muller RT, Henderson JL. The role of complex PTSD in mediating childhood maltreatment and substance abuse severity among youth seeking substance abuse treatment. Psychol Trauma Theory Res Pract Policy. 2014;6(1):25\u201333. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0031920.","journal-title":"Psychol Trauma Theory Res Pract Policy"},{"key":"11906_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Krishnan-Sarin S, Morean M, Kong G, et al. E-Cigarettes and \u201cdripping\u201d among high-school youth. Pediatrics. 2017;139(3). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1542\/peds.2016-3224.","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2016-3224"},{"issue":"6","key":"11906_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1080\/10673220490910844","volume":"12","author":"B Adinoff","year":"2004","unstructured":"Adinoff B. Neurobiologic processes in drug reward and addiction. Harvard review of psychiatry. NIH Public Access. 2004;12(6):305\u201320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10673220490910844.","journal-title":"NIH Public Access"},{"key":"11906_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kandel D, Kandel E. The gateway hypothesis of substance abuse: developmental, biological and societal perspectives. Acta Paediatrica. 2014;104(2):130\u20137.","DOI":"10.1111\/apa.12851"},{"issue":"5","key":"11906_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.15288\/jsad.2016.77.740","volume":"77","author":"RC Dempsey","year":"2016","unstructured":"Dempsey RC, McAlaney J, Helmer SM, Pischke CR, Akvardar Y, Bewick BM, et al. Normative perceptions of Cannabis use among European University students: associations of perceived peer use and peer attitudes with personal use and attitudes. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2016;77(5):740\u20138.","journal-title":"J Stud Alcohol Drugs"},{"key":"11906_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmedr.2021.101362","volume":"22","author":"L Cioffredi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Cioffredi L, Kamon J, Turner W. Effects of depression, anxiety and screen use on adolescent substance use. Prevent Med Rep. 2021;22:101362. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.pmedr.2021.101362.","journal-title":"Prevent Med Rep"},{"issue":"2","key":"11906_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e034363","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2019-034363","volume":"10","author":"T Luckett","year":"2020","unstructured":"Luckett T, NewtonJohn T, Phillips J, et al. Risk of opioid misuse in people with cancer and pain and related clinical considerations:a qualitative study of the perspectives of Australian general practitioners. BMJ Open. 2020;10(2):e034363. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2019-034363.","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"11906_CR61","unstructured":"Lipari RN. Trends in Adolescent Substance Use and Perception of Risk from Substance Use. The CBHSQ Report. Substance Abuse Mental Health Serv Admin. 2013; Retrieved from http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/27656743."},{"issue":"1","key":"11906_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1186\/s13011-018-0163-4","volume":"13","author":"BW Muchiri","year":"2018","unstructured":"Muchiri BW, dos Santos MML. Family management risk and protective factors for adolescent substance use in South Africa. Substance Abuse. 2018;13(1):24. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13011-018-0163-4.","journal-title":"Substance Abuse"},{"key":"11906_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Beco\u00f1a E, Mart\u00ednez \u00da, Calafat A, Juan M, Fern\u00e1ndez-Hermida JR, Secades-Villa R. Parental styles and drug use: a review. In: Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy: Taylor & Francis; 2012. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3109\/09687637.2011.631060.","DOI":"10.3109\/09687637.2011.631060"},{"issue":"1","key":"11906_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e008979","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2015-008979","volume":"6","author":"J Berge","year":"2016","unstructured":"Berge J, Sundel K, Ojehagen A, Hakansson A. Role of parenting styles in adolescent substance use: results from a Swedish longitudinal cohort study. BMJ Open. 2016;6(1):e008979. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2015-008979.","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"issue":"2","key":"11906_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1177\/0886109918822543","volume":"34","author":"I Opara","year":"2019","unstructured":"Opara I, Lardier DT, Reid RJ, Garcia-Reid P. \u201cIt all starts with the parents\u201d: a qualitative study on protective factors for drug-use prevention among black and Hispanic girls. Affilia J Women Soc Work. 2019;34(2):199\u2013218. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0886109918822543.","journal-title":"Affilia J Women Soc Work"},{"issue":"1","key":"11906_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1989\/ejihpe.v6i1.146","volume":"6","author":"V Mart\u00ednez-Loredo","year":"2016","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez-Loredo V, Fern\u00e1ndez-Artamendi S, Weidberg S, Pericot I, L\u00f3pez-N\u00fa\u00f1ez C, Fern\u00e1ndez-Hermida J, et al. Parenting styles and alcohol use among adolescents: a longitudinal study. Eur J Invest Health Psychol Educ. 2016;6(1):27\u201336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1989\/ejihpe.v6i1.146.","journal-title":"Eur J Invest Health Psychol Educ"},{"issue":"3","key":"11906_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.18510\/hssr.2020.83131","volume":"8","author":"MN Baharudin","year":"2020","unstructured":"Baharudin MN, Mohamad M, Karim F. Drug-abuse inmates maqasid shariah quality of lifw: a conceotual paper. Hum Soc Sci Rev. 2020;8(3):1285\u201394. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18510\/hssr.2020.83131.","journal-title":"Hum Soc Sci Rev"},{"issue":"1","key":"11906_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1007\/s40894-019-00130-0","volume":"6","author":"AK Henneberger","year":"2020","unstructured":"Henneberger AK, Mushonga DR, Preston AM. Peer influence and adolescent substance use: a systematic review of dynamic social network research. Adolesc Res Rev. 2020;6(1):57\u201373. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40894-019-00130-0 Springer.","journal-title":"Adolesc Res Rev"},{"issue":"1","key":"11906_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rbp.2012.05.010","volume":"35","author":"FC Gomes","year":"2013","unstructured":"Gomes FC, de Andrade AG, Izbicki R, Almeida AM, de Oliveira LG. Religion as a protective factor against drug use among Brazilian university students: a national survey. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2013;35(1):29\u201337. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.rbp.2012.05.010.","journal-title":"Rev Bras Psiquiatr"},{"issue":"5","key":"11906_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.3109\/00952990.2012.670338","volume":"38","author":"S Kulis","year":"2012","unstructured":"Kulis S, Hodge DR, Ayers SL, Brown EF, Marsiglia FF. Spirituality and religion: intertwined protective factors for substance use among urban American Indian youth. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2012;38(5):444\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3109\/00952990.2012.670338.","journal-title":"Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse"},{"issue":"9","key":"11906_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1190","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-200009000-00020","volume":"39","author":"L Miller","year":"2000","unstructured":"Miller L, Davies M, Greenwald S. Religiosity and substance use and abuse among adolescents in the national comorbidity survey. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39(9):1190\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/00004583-200009000-00020.","journal-title":"J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"issue":"5","key":"11906_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1080\/10911359.2011.566456","volume":"21","author":"SS Moon","year":"2011","unstructured":"Moon SS, Rao U. Social activity, school-related activity, and anti-substance use media messages on adolescent tobacco and alcohol use. J Hum Behav Soc Environ. 2011;21(5):475\u201389. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10911359.2011.566456.","journal-title":"J Hum Behav Soc Environ"},{"key":"11906_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2015.11.002","volume":"44","author":"A Simone","year":"2016","unstructured":"Simone A. Onrust, Roy Otten, Jeroen Lammers, Filip smit, school-based programmes to reduce and prevent substance use in different age groups: what works for whom? Systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Clin Psychol Rev. 2016;44:45\u201359. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cpr.2015.11.002.","journal-title":"Clin Psychol Rev"}],"container-title":["BMC Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12889-021-11906-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12889-021-11906-2\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12889-021-11906-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,13]],"date-time":"2021-11-13T18:02:59Z","timestamp":1636826579000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s12889-021-11906-2"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,13]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]}},"alternative-id":["11906"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12889-021-11906-2","relation":{},"ISSN":["1471-2458"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1471-2458","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,13]]},"assertion":[{"value":"10 June 2021","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"22 September 2021","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"13 November 2021","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Secretariat of Research Ethics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Faculty of Medicine, Cheras, Kuala Lumpur (Reference no. UKMPPI\/111\/8\/JEP-2020.174(2). Dated 27 Mac 2020.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors AMN, RI, FI, MRM, MRAM, NA, NI NSS declare that they have no conflict of interest relevant to this work.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"2088"}}