{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T06:05:53Z","timestamp":1780466753574,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,11]],"date-time":"2023-09-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1694390400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,11]],"date-time":"2023-09-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1694390400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100015617","name":"the Industrial Health Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100015617","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012319","name":"National Center for Global Health and Medicine","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["19A1006,22A1008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19A1006,22A1008"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012319","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science KAKENHI","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["20H03952"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20H03952"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Living alone has been positively associated with the prevalence of depressive symptoms. We examined how a combination of living alone and pet ownership relates to depressive symptoms.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>As part of the Japan Epidemiology Collaboration on Occupational Health Study, we conducted a survey on health-related lifestyles, including living arrangements and pet ownership, among 12,763 employees of five companies in 2018\u20132021. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the 11-item Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale (cutoff score\u2009\u2265\u20099). A Poisson regression model with a robust variance estimator was used to calculate prevalence ratio and 95% confidence interval (CI) while adjusting for covariates.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Among the participants, 30.9% were depressed, 17.7% had pets, and 29.1% lived alone. Compared to individuals living with others but not with a pet, those living alone and not with a pet had a 1.17 times higher prevalence ratio of depressive symptoms (95% CI: 1.08-1.26). The corresponding figures were 1.03 (95% CI: 0.95-1.11) for those living with others and pet(s) and 1.42 (95% CI: 1.18-1.69) for those living alone but with pet(s).<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Living alone was significantly associated with a higher prevalence of depressive symptoms. The association was rather stronger among individuals with vs. without pets. Pet ownership may not be associated with decreased depressive symptoms.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-023-16619-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,11]],"date-time":"2023-09-11T09:02:20Z","timestamp":1694422940000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["The association between living alone and depressive symptoms and the role of pet ownership among Japanese workers"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Haruka","family":"Miyake","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yosuke","family":"Inoue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hiroko","family":"Okazaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Toshiaki","family":"Miyamoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Masafumi","family":"Eguchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Takeshi","family":"Kochi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isamu","family":"Kabe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aki","family":"Tomizawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ami","family":"Fukunaga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shohei","family":"Yamamoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maki","family":"Konishi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Seitaro","family":"Dohi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tetsuya","family":"Mizoue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"16619_CR1","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Depression. https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/depression. Accessed 8 Sep 2022."},{"key":"16619_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1204","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30925-9","volume":"396","author":"T Vos","year":"2020","unstructured":"Vos T, Lim SS, Abbafati C, Abbas KM, Abbasi M, Abbasifard M, et al. Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990\u20132019: a systematic analysis for the global burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet. 2020;396:1204\u201322.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"16619_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.2190\/PM.43.1.b","volume":"43","author":"XY Hu","year":"2012","unstructured":"Hu XY, Cheng Q, Peng XD, Zhang XM, Huang CQ. Living arrangements and risk for late life depression: a meta-analysis of published literature. Int J Psychiatry Med. 2012;43:19\u201334.","journal-title":"Int J Psychiatry Med"},{"key":"16619_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1186\/s12877-018-0882-4","volume":"18","author":"H Kim","year":"2018","unstructured":"Kim H, Kwon S, Hong S, Lee S. Health behaviors influencing depressive symptoms in older Koreans living alone: secondary data analysis of the 2014 Korean longitudinal study of aging. BMC Geriatr. 2018;18:186.","journal-title":"BMC Geriatr"},{"key":"16619_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-12-236","volume":"12","author":"L Pulkki-R\u00e5back","year":"2012","unstructured":"Pulkki-R\u00e5back L, Kivim\u00e4ki M, Ahola K, Joutsenniemi K, Elovainio M, Rossi H, et al. Living alone and antidepressant medication use: a prospective study in a working-age population. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:236.","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"16619_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19898","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-76739-2","volume":"10","author":"YX Goh","year":"2020","unstructured":"Goh YX, Tan JSQ, Syn NL, Tan BSW, Low JY, Foo YH, et al. Association between pet ownership and physical activity levels, atopic conditions, and mental health in Singapore: a propensity score-matched analysis. Sci Rep. 2020;10:19898.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"16619_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1613","DOI":"10.1080\/13607863.2019.1647137","volume":"24","author":"A Hajek","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hajek A, K\u00f6nig H-H. How do cat owners, dog owners and individuals without pets differ in terms of psychosocial outcomes among individuals in old age without a partner? Aging Ment Health. 2020;24:1613\u20139.","journal-title":"Aging Ment Health"},{"key":"16619_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.2752\/175303710X12627079939143","volume":"23","author":"NMD Antonacopoulos","year":"2010","unstructured":"Antonacopoulos NMD, Pychyl TA. An examination of the potential role of pet ownership, human social support and pet attachment in the psychological health of individuals living alone. Anthrozo\u00f6s. 2010;23:37\u201354.","journal-title":"Anthrozo\u00f6s"},{"key":"16619_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2019.11.134","volume":"264","author":"C Sharpley","year":"2020","unstructured":"Sharpley C, Veronese N, Smith L, L\u00f3pez-S\u00e1nchez GF, Bitsika V, Demurtas J, et al. Pet ownership and symptoms of depression: a prospective study of older adults. J Affect Disord. 2020;264:35\u20139.","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"key":"16619_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2010.11.027","volume":"131","author":"K Poudel-Tandukar","year":"2011","unstructured":"Poudel-Tandukar K, Nanri A, Mizoue T, Matsushita Y, Takahashi Y, Noda M, et al. Differences in suicide risk according to living arrangements in Japanese men and women \u2013 the Japan Public Health Center-based (JPHC) prospective study. J Affect Disord. 2011;131:113\u20139.","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"key":"16619_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntz204","volume":"23","author":"A Hori","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hori A, Inoue Y, Kuwahara K, Kunugita N, Akter S, Nishiura C, et al. Smoking and long-term sick leave in a Japanese working population: findings of the Japan Epidemiology Collaboration on Occupational Health Study. Nicotine Tob Res. 2021;23:135\u201342.","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob Res"},{"key":"16619_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.2188\/jea.JE20170093","volume":"28","author":"H Hu","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hu H, Nakagawa T, Okazaki H, Nishiura C, Imai T, Miyamoto T, et al. Cumulative risk of type 2 diabetes in a working population: the Japan Epidemiology collaboration on Occupational Health Study. J Epidemiol. 2018;28:465\u20139.","journal-title":"J Epidemiol"},{"key":"16619_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1038\/s41440-021-00654-w","volume":"44","author":"Y Inoue","year":"2021","unstructured":"Inoue Y, Kuwahara K, Hu H, Yamamoto S, Nakagawa T, Honda T, et al. Visit-to-visit variability of blood pressure and cardiovascular events among the working-age population in Japan: findings from the Japan Epidemiology collaboration on Occupational Health Study. Hypertens Res. 2021;44:1017\u201325.","journal-title":"Hypertens Res"},{"key":"16619_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2018.01.002","volume":"98","author":"K-M Han","year":"2018","unstructured":"Han K-M, Han C, Shin C, Jee H-J, An H, Yoon H-K, et al. Social capital, socioeconomic status, and depression in community-living elderly. J Psychiatr Res. 2018;98:133\u201340.","journal-title":"J Psychiatr Res"},{"key":"16619_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1097\/JGP.0b013e3182107e3b","volume":"20","author":"N Harada","year":"2012","unstructured":"Harada N, Takeshita J, Ahmed I, Chen R, Petrovitch H, Ross GW, et al. Does cultural assimilation influence prevalence and presentation of depressive symptoms in older Japanese- American men? The Honolulu-Asia aging study. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2012;20:337\u201345.","journal-title":"Am J Geriatr Psychiatry"},{"key":"16619_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1941","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2010.03057.x","volume":"58","author":"TK Malmstrom","year":"2010","unstructured":"Malmstrom TK, Andresen EM, Wolinsky FD, Schootman M, Miller JP, Miller DK. Urinary and fecal incontinence and quality of life in African Americans. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2010;58:1941\u20135.","journal-title":"J Am Geriatr Soc"},{"key":"16619_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1177\/0898264308328949","volume":"21","author":"FD Wolinsky","year":"2009","unstructured":"Wolinsky FD, Andresen EM, Malmstrom TK, Schootman M, Miller JP, Miller DK. Three-year measured weight change in the African American Health Study. J Aging Health. 2009;21:231\u201343.","journal-title":"J Aging Health"},{"key":"16619_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1418","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2014.05.011","volume":"39","author":"TM Luger","year":"2014","unstructured":"Luger TM, Suls J, Vander Weg MW. How robust is the association between smoking and depression in adults? A meta-analysis using linear mixed-effects models. Addict Behav. 2014;39:1418\u201329.","journal-title":"Addict Behav"},{"key":"16619_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"906","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2010.03351.x","volume":"106","author":"JM Boden","year":"2011","unstructured":"Boden JM, Fergusson DM. Alcohol and depression. Addiction. 2011;106:906\u201314.","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"16619_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwh221","volume":"160","author":"S Greenland","year":"2004","unstructured":"Greenland S. Model-based estimation of relative risks and other epidemiologic measures in studies of common outcomes and in case-control studies. Am J Epidemiol. 2004;160:301\u20135.","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"16619_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwh090","volume":"159","author":"G Zou","year":"2004","unstructured":"Zou G. A modified poisson regression approach to prospective studies with binary data. Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159:702\u20136.","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"16619_CR22","unstructured":"White. Inflation is making pet ownership more expensive. LendingTree. https:\/\/www.lendingtree.com\/debt-consolidation\/pet-ownership-inflation-survey\/. Accessed 19 Oct 2022."},{"key":"16619_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7468","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-87080-7","volume":"11","author":"LT van Egmond","year":"2021","unstructured":"van Egmond LT, Titova OE, Lindberg E, Fall T, Benedict C. Association between pet ownership and sleep in the Swedish CArdioPulmonary bioImage Study (SCAPIS). Sci Rep. 2021;11:7468.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"16619_CR24","first-page":"115216","volume":"309","author":"K Matsumura","year":"2022","unstructured":"Matsumura K, Hamazaki K, Tsuchida A, Inadera H, Japan Environment and Children\u2019s Study (JECS) Group. Pet ownership during pregnancy and mothers\u2019 mental health conditions up to 1 year postpartum: a nationwide birth cohort-the Japan Environment and Children\u2019s study. Soc Sci Med 1982. 2022;309:115216.","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med 1982"}],"container-title":["BMC Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12889-023-16619-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12889-023-16619-2\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12889-023-16619-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,17]],"date-time":"2023-11-17T18:06:02Z","timestamp":1700244362000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s12889-023-16619-2"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,11]]},"references-count":24,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["16619"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12889-023-16619-2","relation":{},"ISSN":["1471-2458"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1471-2458","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,11]]},"assertion":[{"value":"25 April 2023","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"25 August 2023","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"11 September 2023","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"This study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and the procedure was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the National Center for Global Health and Medicine (approval number: NCGM-S-001140). Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their participation in the study.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and Consent to Participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for Publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"1769"}}