{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,10]],"date-time":"2026-10-10T15:00:22Z","timestamp":1791644422331,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777507200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777507200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"Universit\u00e4tsklinikum Ulm"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Public Health"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Adolescence and early adulthood are crucial periods marked by identity formation and increased vulnerability to mental health issues, with most mental disorders beginning before the age of 25. Today\u2019s youth face amplified risks during a period characterized by multiple societal crises like the COVID-19 pandemic, climate change and economic instability, potentially disrupting age-typical developmental tasks and contributing to rising rates of anxiety and depression. This study aimed to investigate longitudinal patterns of anxiety and depression symptoms across four generational cohorts.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study drew on data from the German subsample of the ongoing \u201cSOSEC \u2013 Social Sentiment in Times of Crises\u201d project. In total, 25,143 individuals contributed 112,858 survey entries, responding to items on depression and anxiety symptoms based on modified versions of the PHQ-9 and GAD-2. Generational groups were defined based on year of birth (Generation Z: 1995\u20132007; Generation Y: 1980\u20131994; Generation X: 1965\u20131979; Baby Boomers\/Traditionalists: 1925\u20131964). Linear mixed-effects models were used to examine associations of generation, survey period, gender and employment status with reported symptom levels, including interaction terms and post-hoc comparisons.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      On average, Generation Z reported higher levels of depression and anxiety symptoms compared to older generations across all survey periods (all\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u2009.001). Women reported higher symptom levels than men and employment was associated to lower symptom levels.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The findings indicate persistently elevated levels of self-reported depression and anxiety symptoms among younger respondents, particularly Generation Z. Associations with employment suggest potential avenues for targeted prevention. Cautious interpretation is warranted, given the observational design and potential confounding factors. These results highlight the importance of monitoring mental health trajectories in young populations during periods of societal stress.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-026-27600-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T02:38:12Z","timestamp":1777516692000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Elevated depression and anxiety symptoms among younger adults in Germany during the post-pandemic period"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Peter","family":"Lena","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sitarski","family":"Emily","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hammann","family":"Jasmin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"K\u00f6hler-Dauner","family":"Franziska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fegert J\u00f6rg","family":"M.","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fegert","family":"Jonas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"27600_CR1","volume-title":"Identity: Youth and crisis","author":"EH Erikson","year":"1968","unstructured":"Erikson EH. Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton; 1968."},{"issue":"7486","key":"27600_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.330.7486.301","volume":"330","author":"D Christie","year":"2005","unstructured":"Christie D, Viner R. Adolescent development. BMJ. 2005;330(7486):301\u20134. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmj.330.7486.301.","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"27600_CR3","unstructured":"Richter M. Gesundheitsverhalten im Jugendalter: Risiken und Schutzfaktoren. In: Hurrelmann K, Klocke A, Melzer W, editors. Jugendgesundheitssurvey. Gesundheitsverhalten und gesundheitliche Risiken bei Jugendlichen in Deutschland. Juventa; 2005. p. 15\u201334."},{"issue":"4","key":"27600_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e203221","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2020.3221","volume":"3","author":"A Caspi","year":"2020","unstructured":"Caspi A, Houts RM, Ambler A, Danese A, Elliott ML, Hariri A, et al. Longitudinal assessment of mental health disorders and comorbidities across 4 decades among participants in the Dunedin Birth Cohort Study. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(4):e203221. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2020.3221.","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"issue":"6","key":"27600_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.62.6.593","volume":"62","author":"RC Kessler","year":"2005","unstructured":"Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Merikangas KR, Walters EE. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(6):593\u2013602. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/archpsyc.62.6.593.","journal-title":"Arch Gen Psychiatry"},{"key":"27600_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1517533","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1517533","volume":"15","author":"P McGorry","year":"2025","unstructured":"McGorry P, Gunasiri H, Mei C, Rice S, Gao CX. The youth mental health crisis: analysis and solutions. Front Psychiatry. 2025;15:1517533. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2024.1517533.","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"key":"27600_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e6","DOI":"10.1017\/sus.2024.1","volume":"7","author":"M Lawrence","year":"2024","unstructured":"Lawrence M, Homer-Dixon T, Janzwood S, Rockstr\u00f6m J, Renn O, Donges JF. Global polycrisis: the causal mechanisms of crisis entanglement. Glob Sustain. 2024;7:e6.","journal-title":"Glob Sustain"},{"issue":"4","key":"27600_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1026\/0942-5403\/a000431","volume":"32","author":"N Dippel","year":"2023","unstructured":"Dippel N, Asbrand J. Internalisierende St\u00f6rungen bei Kindern und Jugendlichen. Ein Update deutschsprachiger Forschung zu \u00c4ngsten und Depressionen mit Blick auf eine globalisierte Welt. Kindh Entwickl. 2023;32(4):199\u2013204. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1026\/0942-5403\/a000431.","journal-title":"Kindh Entwickl"},{"key":"27600_CR9","volume-title":"Psychosocial disorders in young people: time trends and their causes","author":"M Rutter","year":"1995","unstructured":"Rutter M, Smith DJ. Psychosocial disorders in young people: time trends and their causes. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 1995."},{"key":"27600_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-021-01726-5","volume":"31","author":"U Ravens-Sieberer","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ravens-Sieberer U, Kaman A, Erhart M, Devine J, Schlack R, Otto C. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on quality of life and mental health in children and adolescents in Germany. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2022;31:879\u201389. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00787-021-01726-5.","journal-title":"Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"27600_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2020.110186","volume":"136","author":"C Pieh","year":"2020","unstructured":"Pieh C, Budimir S, Probst T. The effect of age, gender, income, work, and physical activity on mental health during coronavirus disease (COVID-19) lockdown in Austria. J Psychosom Res. 2020;136:110186. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2020.110186.","journal-title":"J Psychosom Res"},{"key":"27600_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1186\/s13034-022-00546-y","volume":"16","author":"H Ludwig-Walz","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ludwig-Walz H, Dannheim I, Pfadenhauer LM, Fegert JM, Bujard M. Increase of depression among children and adolescents after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2022;16:109. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13034-022-00546-y.","journal-title":"Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health"},{"key":"27600_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1186\/s13034-023-00612-z","volume":"17","author":"H Ludwig-Walz","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ludwig-Walz H, Dannheim I, Pfadenhauer LM, Fegert JM, Bujard M. Anxiety increased among children and adolescents during pandemic-related school closures in Europe: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2023;17:74. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13034-023-00612-z.","journal-title":"Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health"},{"issue":"5","key":"27600_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1177\/21676968211042109","volume":"9","author":"R Preetz","year":"2021","unstructured":"Preetz R, Filser A, Br\u00f6mmelhaus A, Baalmann T, Feldhaus M. Longitudinal changes in life satisfaction and mental health in emerging adulthood during the COVID-19 pandemic. Risk and protective factors. Emerg Adulthood. 2021;9(5):602\u201317. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/21676968211042109.","journal-title":"Emerg Adulthood"},{"issue":"5\u20136","key":"27600_CR15","first-page":"1","volume":"46","author":"R Saulle","year":"2022","unstructured":"Saulle R, De Sario M, Bena A, Capra P, Culasso M, Davoli M, et al. School closures and mental health, wellbeing and health behaviours among children and adolescents during the second COVID-19 wave: a systematic review of the literature. Epidemiol e Prevenzione. 2022;46(5\u20136):1\u201320.","journal-title":"Epidemiol e Prevenzione"},{"issue":"5","key":"27600_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9566.2011.01430.x","volume":"34","author":"S Prior","year":"2012","unstructured":"Prior S. Overcoming stigma: how young people position themselves as counselling service users. Sociol Health Illn. 2012;34(5):697\u2013713.","journal-title":"Sociol Health Illn"},{"issue":"20","key":"27600_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2021.07.027","volume":"109","author":"L Foulkes","year":"2021","unstructured":"Foulkes L, Blakemore SJ. Individual differences in adolescent mental health during COVID-19: the importance of peer relationship quality. Neuron. 2021;109(20):3203\u20135.","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"issue":"2","key":"27600_CR18","first-page":"89","volume":"51","author":"JM Fegert","year":"2023","unstructured":"Fegert JM, Deetjen U. Die schwierige Situation junger Menschen nach der Pandemie \u2013 eine Herausforderung f\u00fcr die Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie\/-psychotherapie. Z Kinder Jugendpsychiatr Psychother. 2023;51(2):89\u201391.","journal-title":"Z Kinder Jugendpsychiatr Psychother"},{"key":"27600_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1006\/jado.2002.0507","volume":"25","author":"N Garnefski","year":"2002","unstructured":"Garnefski N, Legerstee J, Kraaij V, Van Den Kommer T, Teerds J. Cognitive coping strategies and symptoms of depression and anxiety: a comparison between adolescents and adults. J Adolesc. 2002;25:603\u201311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1006\/jado.2002.0507.","journal-title":"J Adolesc"},{"key":"27600_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1007\/s00112-017-0270-8","volume":"165","author":"F Klasen","year":"2017","unstructured":"Klasen F, Meyrose AK, Otto C, Reiss F, Ravens-Sieberer U. Psychische Auff\u00e4lligkeiten von Kindern und Jugendlichen in Deutschland: Ergebnisse der BELLA-Studie. Monatsschr Kinderheilkd. 2017;165:402\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00112-017-0270-8.","journal-title":"Monatsschr Kinderheilkd"},{"issue":"4","key":"27600_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2020.2722","volume":"78","author":"JT Braslow","year":"2021","unstructured":"Braslow JT, Brekke JS, Levenson J. Psychiatry\u2019s myopia\u2014reclaiming the social, cultural, and psychological in the psychiatric gaze. JAMA Psychiat. 2021;78(4):349\u201350. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2020.2722.","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiat"},{"key":"27600_CR22","unstructured":"Colton CW, Manderscheid RW. Congruencies in increased mortality rates, years of potential life lost, and causes of death among public mental health clients in eight states. Prev Chronic Dis. 2006;3(2). Available from: http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/pcd\/issues\/2006\/apr\/05_0180.htm"},{"key":"27600_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.59.7.614","volume":"59","author":"PW Corrigan","year":"2004","unstructured":"Corrigan PW. How stigma interferes with mental health care. Am Psychol. 2004;59:614\u201325.","journal-title":"Am Psychol"},{"issue":"9","key":"27600_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x","volume":"16","author":"K Kroenke","year":"2001","unstructured":"Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JBW. The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med. 2001;16(9):606\u201313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1046\/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x.","journal-title":"J Gen Intern Med"},{"key":"27600_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.genhosppsych.2015.11.005","volume":"39","author":"F Plummer","year":"2016","unstructured":"Plummer F, Manea L, Trepel D, McMillan D. Screening for anxiety disorders with the GAD-7 and GAD-2: a systematic review and diagnostic meta-analysis. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2016;39:24\u201331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.genhosppsych.2015.11.005.","journal-title":"Gen Hosp Psychiatry"},{"key":"27600_CR26","unstructured":"Schnetzer S. Generation\u202fXYZ: Unterschiede & Gemeinsamkeiten. Simon Schnetzer. 2025. Available from: https:\/\/www.simon-schnetzer.com\/wissen\/generation-xyz. Cited 2025 Jun 13."},{"issue":"13","key":"27600_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v082.i13","volume":"82","author":"A Kuznetsova","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kuznetsova A, Brockhoff PB, Christensen RHB. lmerTest package: tests in linear mixed effects models. J Stat Softw. 2017;82(13):1\u201326. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18637\/jss.v082.i13.","journal-title":"J Stat Softw"},{"key":"27600_CR28","unstructured":"Fox J, Weisberg S. An R Companion to Applied Regression. 3rd ed. Sage; 2019."},{"key":"27600_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lenth R. emmeans: Estimated Marginal Means, aka Least-Squares Means. 2025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.32614\/CRAN.package.emmeans","DOI":"10.32614\/CRAN.package.emmeans"},{"key":"27600_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Busch M, Maske U, Ryl L, Schlack R, Hapke U. Prevalence of depressive symptoms and diagnosed depression among adults in Germany. 2013. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00103-013-1688-3.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00103-013-1688-3"},{"key":"27600_CR31","unstructured":"Robert Koch-Institut. Depressive Symptomatik: Pr\u00e4valenz (ab 18 Jahre). Gesundheitsberichterstattung des Bundes. 2024. Available from: https:\/\/gbe.rki.de. Cited 2025 Oct 2."},{"key":"27600_CR32","unstructured":"Robert Koch-Institut. Angstsymptome: Pr\u00e4valenz (ab 18 Jahre). Gesundheitsberichterstattung des Bundes. 2024. Available from: https:\/\/gbe.rki.de. Cited 2025 Oct 2."},{"issue":"4","key":"27600_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1007\/s00038-012-0416-3","volume":"58","author":"R Eisinga","year":"2013","unstructured":"Eisinga R, Grotenhuis MT, Pelzer B. The reliability of a two-item scale: Pearson, Cronbach, or Spearman-Brown? Int J Public Health. 2013;58(4):637\u201342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00038-012-0416-3.","journal-title":"Int J Public Health"},{"issue":"9","key":"27600_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(24)00163-9","volume":"11","author":"PD McGorry","year":"2024","unstructured":"McGorry PD, Mei C, Dalal N, Alvarez-Jimenez M, Blakemore SJ, Browne V, et al. The lancet psychiatry commission on youth mental health. Lancet Psychiatry. 2024;11(9):731\u201374.","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"}],"container-title":["BMC Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12889-026-27600-0","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12889-026-27600-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12889-026-27600-0.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T02:54:14Z","timestamp":1777517654000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s12889-026-27600-0"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["27600"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12889-026-27600-0","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-8056528\/v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1471-2458"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1471-2458","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]},"assertion":[{"value":"7 November 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"27 April 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"30 April 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The ethics approval has been submitted by the German Association for Experimental Economic Research e.V., Institutional Review Board Certificate No. MSEIsPRB (\n                      \n                      ), issued on September 13, 2023, and valid until September 12, 2025. The research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent to participate was obtained and documented by the panel provider CINT.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"1420"}}