{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T02:16:39Z","timestamp":1787883399377,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]],"date-time":"2026-06-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781827200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787875200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":70,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Public Health"],"DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-026-28077-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]],"date-time":"2026-06-19T01:51:49Z","timestamp":1781833909000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Association between long-term PM2.5 exposure and risk of urinary tract infection in children: a nationwide longitudinal cohort study"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8956-4192","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jung Eun","family":"Choi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hyemin","family":"Jang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Whanhee","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2980-6943","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jongmin","family":"Oh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6976-6878","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hae Soon","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2234-1055","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ji Hyen","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1846-3153","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jung Won","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4224-3858","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eunhee","family":"Ha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"28077_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0b013e31815e4122","volume":"27","author":"N Shaikh","year":"2008","unstructured":"Shaikh N, et al. Prevalence of urinary tract infection in childhood. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2008;27:302\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/INF.0b013e31815e4122.","journal-title":"Pediatr Infect Dis J"},{"key":"28077_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Monoson A, et al. Air pollution and respiratory infections: the past, present, and future. Toxicol Sci. 2023;192:3\u201314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/toxsci\/kfad003.","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfad003"},{"key":"28077_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Fuller R, et al. Pollution and health: a progress update. Lancet Planet Health. 2022;6:e535\u201347. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2542-5196(22)00090-0.","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(22)00090-0"},{"key":"28077_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kloog I, et al. Long- and short-term exposure to PM2.5 and mortality. Epidemiology. 2013;24:555\u201361. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/EDE.0b013e318294beaa.","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0b013e318294beaa"},{"key":"28077_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Strak M, et al. Long-term exposure to low level air pollution and mortality in eight European cohorts within the ELAPSE project: pooled analysis. BMJ. 2021;374:n1904. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmj.n1904.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n1904"},{"key":"28077_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.2147\/IJGM.S102230","volume":"11","author":"P Darbre","year":"2018","unstructured":"Darbre P. Overview of air pollution and endocrine disorders. Int J Gen Med. 2018;11:191\u2013207. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2147\/IJGM.S102230.","journal-title":"Int J Gen Med"},{"key":"28077_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bowe B, et al. The global and national burden of chronic kidney disease attributable to ambient fine particulate matter air pollution: a modelling study. BMJ Glob Health. 2020;5:e002063.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2019-002063"},{"key":"28077_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2017030253","volume":"29","author":"B Bowe","year":"2018","unstructured":"Bowe B, et al. Particulate matter air pollution and the risk of incident CKD and progression to ESRD. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2018;29:218\u201330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1681\/ASN.2017030253.","journal-title":"J Am Soc Nephrol"},{"key":"28077_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chen L et al. The impact of prolonged air pollution exposure on urinary tract and male reproductive system infections: insights from a large-scale prospective cohort study. BMC Public Health. 2025;25. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12889-025-24660-6.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-025-24660-6"},{"key":"28077_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Fang J, et al. Associations between personal PM2.5 elemental constituents and decline of kidney function in older individuals: the China BAPE study. Environ Sci Technol. 2020;54:13167\u201374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acs.est.0c04051.","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.0c04051"},{"key":"28077_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Min J et al. Air pollution and acute kidney injury with comorbid disease: a nationwide case-crossover study in South Korea. Environ Res. 2024;260. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.envres.2024.119608.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2024.119608"},{"key":"28077_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Park J, Lee W. Air pollution can affect kidney disease? Scientific evidence from epidemiology to experimental studies. Kidney Res Clin Pract. 2024;43:559\u201361. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.23876\/j.krcp.24.103.","DOI":"10.23876\/j.krcp.24.103"},{"key":"28077_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wathanavasin W et al. Association of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) exposure and chronic kidney disease outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2024;14. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-024-51554-1.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-51554-1"},{"key":"28077_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Feng Y et al. Long-term exposure to ambient PM2.5, particulate constituents and hospital admissions from non-respiratory infection. Nat Commun. 2024;15. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41467-024-45776-0.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-45776-0"},{"key":"28077_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Oh J et al. Association between exposure to fine particulate matter and kidney function: results from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Environ Res. 2022;212. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.envres.2022.113080.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2022.113080"},{"key":"28077_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Politis MD et al. Recent ambient temperature and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) exposure is associated with urinary kidney injury biomarkers in children. Sci Total Environ. 2024;907. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023"},{"key":"28077_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chu L et al. Short-term associations between particulate matter air pollution and hospital admissions through the emergency room for urinary system disease in Beijing, China: a time-series study. Environ Pollut. 2021;289. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.117858.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.117858"},{"key":"28077_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lee JH et al. Association between long-term PM2.5 exposure and risk of infectious diseases \u2013 acute otitis media, sinusitis, pharyngitis, and tonsillitis in children: a nationwide longitudinal cohort study. Environ Res. 2025;272. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.envres.2025.121137.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2025.121137"},{"key":"28077_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Tecer LH, et al. Particulate matter and children\u2019s hospital admissions for asthma and respiratory diseases: a bidirectional case-crossover study. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2008;71:512\u201320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/15287390801907459.","DOI":"10.1080\/15287390801907459"},{"key":"28077_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zeng Y et al. Causal relationship between particulate matter 2.5 and infectious diseases: a two-sample Mendelian randomization study. Heliyon. 2024;10. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e23412.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e23412"},{"key":"28077_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lee W et al. Associations between greenness and kidney disease in Massachusetts: the US Medicare longitudinal cohort study. Environ Int. 2023;173. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.envint.2023.107844.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2023.107844"},{"key":"28077_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lee W et al. Associations between long-term air pollution exposure and first hospital admission for kidney and total urinary system diseases in the US Medicare population: nationwide longitudinal cohort study. BMJ Med. 2022;1. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjmed-2021-000009.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjmed-2021-000009"},{"key":"28077_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lee J, Lee JS, Park SH, Shin SA, Kim K. Cohort profile: the National Health Insurance Service\u2013National Sample Cohort (NHIS-NSC), South Korea. Int J Epidemiol. 2017;46:e15. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ije\/dyv319.","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyv319"},{"key":"28077_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kim MK, et al. Current trends of big data research using the Korean National Health Information Database. Diabetes Metab J. 2022;46:552\u201363. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4093\/dmj.2022.0193.","DOI":"10.4093\/dmj.2022.0193"},{"key":"28077_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim TY, et al. Short-term effects of ambient PM2.5 and PM2.5\u201310 on mortality in major cities of Korea. Aerosol Air Qual Res. 2018;18:1853\u201362.","DOI":"10.4209\/aaqr.2017.11.0490"},{"key":"28077_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Park J et al. Association of long-term exposure to air pollution with chronic sleep deprivation in South Korea: a community-level longitudinal study, 2008\u20132018. Environ Res. 2023;228. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.envres.2023.115812.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2023.115812"},{"key":"28077_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kang YW, et al. Korea community health survey data profiles. Osong Public Health Res Perspect. 2015;6:211\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.phrp.2015.05.003.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrp.2015.05.003"},{"key":"28077_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Fisher LD, Lin DY. Time-dependent covariates in the Cox proportional-hazards regression model. Annu Rev Public Health. 1999;20:145\u201357. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev.publhealth.20.1.145.","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.publhealth.20.1.145"},{"key":"28077_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Shi L, et al. Long-term effects of PM2.5 on neurological disorders in the American Medicare population: a longitudinal cohort study. Lancet Planet Health. 2020;4:e557\u201365. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2542-5196(20)30227-8.","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(20)30227-8"},{"key":"28077_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kim HJ et al. Association between exposure to ambient air pollution and renal function in Korean adults. Ann Occup Environ Med. 2018;30. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40557-018-0226-z.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40557-018-0226-z"},{"key":"28077_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Liu X et al. Household air pollution and urinary incontinence symptoms among older adults in LASI: a large-scale population-based study. BMC Public Health. 2024;24. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12889-024-18834-x.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-024-18834-x"},{"key":"28077_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2020.01.179","volume":"151","author":"DA Glencross","year":"2020","unstructured":"Glencross DA, et al. Air pollution and its effects on the immune system. Free Radic Biol Med. 2020;151:56\u201368.","journal-title":"Free Radic Biol Med"},{"key":"28077_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Miyata R, van Eeden SF. The innate and adaptive immune response induced by alveolar macrophages exposed to ambient particulate matter. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2011;257:209\u201326. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.taap.2011.09.007.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2011.09.007"},{"key":"28077_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Shahbaz MA et al. Urban air PM modifies differently immune defense responses against bacterial and viral infections in vitro. Environ Res. 2021;192. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.envres.2020.110244.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.110244"},{"key":"28077_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Xu W et al. The influence of PM2.5 exposure on kidney diseases. Hum Exp Toxicol. 2022;41. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/09603271211069982.","DOI":"10.1177\/09603271211069982"},{"key":"28077_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Angel S, et al. New insights into the association of air pollution and kidney diseases by tracing gold nanoparticles with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2024;416:2683\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00216-023-05105-8.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-023-05105-8"},{"key":"28077_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Tavera Busso I, et al. Kidney damage induced by sub-chronic fine particulate matter exposure. Environ Int. 2018;121:635\u201342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.envint.2018.10.007.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2018.10.007"}],"container-title":["BMC Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12889-026-28077-7","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12889-026-28077-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12889-026-28077-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T01:16:52Z","timestamp":1787879812000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s12889-026-28077-7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["28077"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12889-026-28077-7","relation":{},"ISSN":["1471-2458"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1471-2458","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]]},"assertion":[{"value":"10 April 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"3 June 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"19 June 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Ewha Womans University Seoul Hospital (IRB No: SEUMC 2022-05-034). The requirement for informed consent was waived because this study used anonymized secondary data from the National Health Insurance Service database. All procedures were conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and relevant guidelines and regulations.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent for publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"2475"}}