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This study investigated how iron oxide nanoparticles (FeNPs), together with symbiotic bacterial (<jats:italic>Azospirillum lipoferum<\/jats:italic>) and fungal (<jats:italic>Aspergillus oryzae<\/jats:italic>) endophytes, modulate osmotic adjustment, molecular and biochemical mechanisms related to photosynthesis, and drought tolerance mechanisms in thyme.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>The experiment was evaluated as a factorial experiment in a completely randomized design with three replications. evaluating three treatment factors: four irrigation levels (100%, 75%, 50%, and 25% of field capacity), four FeNPs concentrations (0, 0.5, 1, and 1.5\u00a0mg L\u207b\u00b9), and three endophyte treatments (control, bacterial (EB), and fungal (EF) inoculation). At 25% FC, EB and spraying with 1 mg L<jats:sup>\u2212\u20091<\/jats:sup> FeNPs increased Fv\/Fm (maximum quantum efficiency of photosystem II), chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and total chlorophyll, carotenoids, relative water content (RWC), and protein levels level protein levels by 18.75%, 10.41%, 31.54%, 18.20%, 14.26%, 35.53%, and 125.22% respectively, compared to the control. At 25% FC, electrolyte leakage (EL) was increased by 47.44% with the combination of EF and 1.5 mg L<jats:sup>\u2212\u20091<\/jats:sup> FeNPs. The highest proline accumulation at 25% FC was observed after inoculation with EF and 1 mg L<jats:sup>\u2212\u20091<\/jats:sup> FeNPs, resulting in significant increases of 36.36% and 13.04%, respectively, compared to the control. Soluble sugar was remarkably increased by 28.57% under upon treatment with FeNPs (1.5 mg L<jats:sup>\u2212\u20091<\/jats:sup> FeNPs). At 25% FC, EB and 1.5 mg L<jats:sup>\u2212\u20091<\/jats:sup> FeNPs showed significant reductions of 17.33% and 37.10%, respectively, in malondialdehyde levels compared to control plants. At 50% FC, 1\u00a0mg L\u207b\u00b9 FeNPs increased Catalase by 15%, peroxidase by 31.25%, and superoxide dismutase by 43.42%, while higher concentrations reduced enzyme activities. Similarly, 1.5\u00a0mg L\u207b\u00b9 FeNPs and EB inoculation enhanced ascorbate peroxidase by 37.44% and 17.37%, respectively. FeNPs acted as abiotic stressors at low levels but became toxic at higher concentrations.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>Our findings demonstrate that the synergistic application of FeNPs and endophytes significantly enhances drought tolerance in <jats:italic>T. vulgaris<\/jats:italic> by optimizing photosynthetic efficiency (Fv\/Fm, chlorophyll content) and preserving membrane integrity (RWC, MDA reduction). These results provide a framework for leveraging nano-bio partnerships to improve crop resilience under water scarcity.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12896-025-01026-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,2]],"date-time":"2025-09-02T08:05:27Z","timestamp":1756800327000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["How thyme thrives under drought: insights into photosynthetic and membrane-protective mechanisms"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Afsoun","family":"Kamyab","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9931-6993","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Davood","family":"Samsampour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"1026_CR1","first-page":"1","volume":"18","author":"M Farooq","year":"2024","unstructured":"Farooq M, Wahid A, Zahra N, Hafeez MB, Siddique KH. 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