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However, the microbial composition of QLF-detected plaque in young children remains poorly characterized. This cross-sectional study aimed to assess the associations among 10 oral disease-associated bacterial species, QLF-detected plaques, and caries in 3-year-old children.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Ninety-nine 3-year-old children participated in this study. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) quantified 10 target species, which were analyzed individually and as functional groups (red-complex, orange-complex, and caries-associated groups). Plaque on the labial surfaces was measured by QLF imaging and scored using the Fluorescence Patient Hygiene Performance Index (F-PHPI). The caries experience (dft) was clinically recorded. Associations were evaluated using Spearman\u2019s correlation and regression analyses.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The F-PHPI score was significantly associated with\n                      <jats:italic>Fusobacterium nucleatum<\/jats:italic>\n                      (\n                      <jats:italic>F. nucleatum<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) (\u03c1\u2009=\u20090.455,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u20090.05), the orange complex (\u03c1\u2009=\u20090.456,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u20090.001), and total bacterial load (\u03c1\u2009=\u20090.479,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u20090.001). Regression analysis showed that orange-complex levels predicted F-PHPI scores (R\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      \u2009=\u20090.17). dft correlated with the caries-associated group (\u03c1\u2009=\u20090.282,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u20090.05), and logistic regression identified this group as a significant predictor (OR\u2009=\u20091.34,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20090.01), with\n                      <jats:italic>Streptococcus mutans<\/jats:italic>\n                      (\n                      <jats:italic>S. mutans<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) the only individual species associated with caries (\u03c1\u2009=\u20090.286,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u20090.05).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In 3-year-old children, QLF-detected plaque was significantly associated with orange-complex bacteria. The F-PHPI served as a potential indicator of microbial load, with regression models confirming its predictive relationship with pathogenic bacterial groups. These findings support QLF imaging as a noninvasive tool for early microbial risk assessment in pediatric populations.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12903-026-07968-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,26]],"date-time":"2026-02-26T06:47:20Z","timestamp":1772088440000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Association of PCR-based oral bacterial profiles with fluorescence-detected plaque and caries experience in 3-year-old children: a cross-sectional study"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Sang-Kyeom","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"In-Young","family":"Ku","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Su-Jin","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"7968_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1159\/000377732","volume":"49","author":"PD Marsh","year":"2015","unstructured":"Marsh PD, Head DA, Devine DA. 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Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of Gachon University (IRB No. 1044396-202304-HR-052-01). Written informed consent was obtained from the parents or legal guardians of all participating children.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"567"}}