{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,10]],"date-time":"2026-11-10T03:30:41Z","timestamp":1794281441038,"version":"4.9.0"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775433600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779926400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":52,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ife Institute of Advanced Studies Small Grant"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Women's Health"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>As women spend nearly one-third of their lives postmenopausal, this transition warrants greater public health attention. Menopausal timing is affected by biological, lifestyle, and socioeconomic characteristics of women. While previous studies emphasize biomedical correlations, few account for how urban-rural differences and reproductive health variables influence menopausal timing. This study examines the influence of reproductive history on menopausal timing among women in urban and rural areas in Nigeria and provides evidence that can help target interventions aimed at improving midlife and post-reproductive health.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Data were collected from 294 women (181 urban, 113 rural) using structured questionnaires from March to June 2025. Descriptive, chi-square, and multinomial logistic regression analyses were used to describe, determine associations, and predictors of menopausal timing (early, normal, late) based on reproductive history. Data analysis was carried out in SPSS. Menopausal timing was the dependent variable, and independent variables included reproductive history with multiple variables such as menarche, number of pregnancies, number of children, breastfeeding, family planning, and miscarriages, while controlling for the area type (i.e., urban or rural).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Among the 294 respondents, mean age at menopause was 49.6 years and modal age was 48 years. Overall, 5.5% of women experienced early menopause (42\u201344 years), 77.2% experienced normal menopause (45\u201353 years), and 17.3% experienced late menopause (54\u201360 years). Stratified by residence, 7.2% of urban women and 2.7% of rural women had early menopause, while 20.0% of urban and 13.3% of rural women experienced late menopause. Chi-square analyses indicated significant associations (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u20090.05) between menopausal timing and reproductive history variables such as age at menarche, number of pregnancies and children, breastfeeding history, use of family planning, and history of miscarriage among urban women. In rural women, similar associations were observed, except for menstrual regularity, breastfeeding status, and duration of breastfeeding, which were not statistically significant. Regression analysis showed that in urban areas, early menarche (OR\u2009=\u20098.75,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u20090.05) and a higher number of children (OR\u2009=\u200949.3,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u20090.05) significantly increased the odds of early menopause, whereas a higher number of pregnancies reduced the likelihood of late menopause (OR\u2009=\u20090.69,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u20090.05). In rural areas, only the number of pregnancies was significantly associated with late menopause (OR\u2009=\u20091.85,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u20090.05). Reproductive history exerted greater influence in urban settings than in rural environments.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Menopausal timing among women in the study area occurred predominantly within the normal age range, although variations were observed between urban and rural populations. The findings indicate that reproductive history factors, particularly age at menarche, number of pregnancies, and number of children, play an important role in menopausal timing, with stronger associations observed among urban women. These results highlight the importance of incorporating reproductive life-course factors into women\u2019s health policies and interventions aimed at improving midlife reproductive health and menopause related care in Nigeria.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12905-026-04441-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]],"date-time":"2026-04-06T10:03:18Z","timestamp":1775469798000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Association between reproductive history and menopausal timing: exploring rural-urban differences in a cross-sectional survey"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Ossai Onyinyechi","family":"Gift","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Madu Ignatius","family":"Ani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"4441_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18311","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-03435-4","volume":"15","author":"N Bazyar","year":"2025","unstructured":"Bazyar N, Moradi Z, Ali Khani J, Azizallah D. Trends in age at natural menopause and menarche and related factors in Iran: results from a population-based study. Sci Rep. 2025;15:18311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-025-03435-4.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"4441_CR2","unstructured":"Peacock K, Carlson K, Ketvertis KM. Menopause. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing; 2023. https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK470332\/."},{"issue":"7","key":"4441_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13349","DOI":"10.1111\/srt.13349","volume":"29","author":"F Flament","year":"2023","unstructured":"Flament F, Jiang R, Delaunay C, Kerob D, Leclerc-Mercier S, Kosmadaki M, Zouboulis CC. Evaluation of adapted dermocosmetic regimens for perimenopausal and menopausal women using an artificial intelligence\u2010based algorithm and quality of life questionnaires: An open observational study. Skin Res Technol. 2023;29(7):e13349.","journal-title":"Skin Res Technol"},{"issue":"2","key":"4441_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"H245","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00753.2022","volume":"324","author":"M Erin Moir","year":"2023","unstructured":"Erin Moir M, Corkery AT, Senese KA, Miller KB, Pearson AG, Loggie NA, Howery AJ, Gaynor-Metzinger SH, Cody KA, Eisenmenger LB, Johnson SC, Barnes JN. Age at natural menopause impacts cerebrovascular reactivity and brain structure. Am J Physiology: Heart Circ Physiol. 2023;324(2):H245\u201354. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1152\/ajpheart.00753.2022.","journal-title":"Am J Physiology: Heart Circ Physiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"4441_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.6118\/jmm.22033","volume":"29","author":"M Rostami-Moez","year":"2023","unstructured":"Rostami-Moez M, Masoumi SZ, Otogara M, Farahani F, Alimohammadi S, Oshvandi K. Examining the health-related needs of females during menopause: A systematic review study. J Menopausal Med. 2023;29(1):1.","journal-title":"J Menopausal Med"},{"key":"4441_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1186\/s12905-020-01164-6","volume":"21","author":"IMPS Ilankoon","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ilankoon IMPS, Samarasinghe K, Elg\u00e1n C. Menopause is a natural stage of aging: a qualitative study. BMC Womens Health. 2021;21:47. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12905-020-01164-6.","journal-title":"BMC Womens Health"},{"key":"4441_CR7","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Menopause [Fact sheet]. 2024. https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/menopause. Assessed 20 April 2025."},{"key":"4441_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.22214\/ijraset.2022.46796","volume":"10","author":"S Rana","year":"2022","unstructured":"Rana S, Panghal R. A Study to identify the age of menopause and its relation to socio- economic determinants and to assess the knowledge and attitude about the health effects of menopause. Int J Res Appl Sci Eng Technol. 2022;10:1118\u201326.","journal-title":"Int J Res Appl Sci Eng Technol"},{"key":"4441_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ikeanyi ME, Ikobho D. Socioeconomic associations with menopausal age in Nigeria. 2021; 27(3):116\u201323. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.6118\/jmm.21006.","DOI":"10.6118\/jmm.21006"},{"key":"4441_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"El Khoudary SR, Greendale G, Crawford SL, Avis NE, Brooks MM, Thurston RC, Karvonen-Gutierrez C, Waetjen LE, Matthews K. The menopause transition and women\u2019s health at midlife: a progress report from the Study of Women\u2019s Health Across the Nation (SWAN). Menopause. 2019;26(10):1213\u201327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/GME.0000000000001424.","DOI":"10.1097\/GME.0000000000001424"},{"issue":"3","key":"4441_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.15296\/ijwhr.2019.43","volume":"7","author":"IV Ezeome","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ezeome IV, Ezugworie JO, Nwankwo TO. Attitude of postmenopausal women toward the menopause and hormone treatment in Enugu, Southeast Nigeria. Int J Women\u2019s Health Reprod Sci. 2019;7(3):263\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15296\/ijwhr.2019.43.","journal-title":"Int J Women\u2019s Health Reprod Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"4441_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1177\/2053369120936332","volume":"26","author":"TA Olowokere","year":"2020","unstructured":"Olowokere TA, Komolafe AO, Olajubu AO. Lifestyle practices and menopause- related symptoms among women in rural communities of Ado-Ekiti Local Government Area. Post Reproductive Health. 2020;26(4):197\u2013203. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/2053369120936332.","journal-title":"Post Reproductive Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"4441_CR13","first-page":"9","volume":"2","author":"LN Achie","year":"2021","unstructured":"Achie LN, Igashi J, Olorunshola KV. Age at natural menopause and anthropometrical parameters for rural Nigerian women in Zuturung District, Kaduna State, Nigeria. J Med Basic Appl Sci Res. 2021;2(2):9\u201320.","journal-title":"J Med Basic Appl Sci Res"},{"key":"4441_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/s40101-015-0076-0","volume":"34","author":"A Zsakai","year":"2015","unstructured":"Zsakai A, Mascie-Taylor N, Bodzsar E. Relationship between some indicators of reproductive history, body fatness, and the menopausal transition in Hungarian women. J Physiol Anthropol. 2015;34:35. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40101-015-0076-0.","journal-title":"J Physiol Anthropol"},{"issue":"3","key":"4441_CR15","first-page":"185","volume":"10","author":"M Batool","year":"2020","unstructured":"Batool M, Kiran S, Mazhar SB. Socio-Economic determinants of age at menopause. J Soc Obstetricians Gynaecologists Pakistan. 2020;10(3):185\u20139.","journal-title":"J Soc Obstetricians Gynaecologists Pakistan"},{"key":"4441_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1186\/s12905-022-01704-1","volume":"22","author":"SH Sharami","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sharami SH, Darkhaneh RF, Gashti NG, Ghanaei MM, Bab Eghbal S. The association between reproductive history and menopausal symptoms: Evidence from a cross- sectional survey. BMC Women\u2019s Health. 2022;22:136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12905-022-01704-1.","journal-title":"BMC Women\u2019s Health"},{"issue":"5","key":"4441_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1542","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyu094","volume":"43","author":"DAJM Schoenaker","year":"2014","unstructured":"Schoenaker DAJM, Jackson CA, Rowlands JV, Mishra GD. Socioeconomic position, lifestyle factors, and age at natural menopause: A systematic review and meta-analyses of studies across six continents. Int J Epidemiol. 2014;43(5):1542\u201362. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ije\/dyu094.","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"2","key":"4441_CR18","first-page":"54","volume":"14","author":"N Bahri","year":"2020","unstructured":"Bahri N, Roudsari RL. Moving from uncertainty toward acceptance: A grounded theory study on exploring Iranian women\u2019s experiences of encountering menopause. J Psychosom Obstet Gynecol. 2020;14(2):1:54\u2013164.","journal-title":"J Psychosom Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"4441_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wang L, Zhang D, Yang Y. Severity and factors of menopausal symptoms in middle-aged women in Gansu Province of China: a cross-sectional study. BMC Women\u2019s Health. 2021;21. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12905-021-01496-y. Article 405.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12905-021-01496-y"},{"key":"4441_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.5114\/pm.2015.48637","volume":"14","author":"M Makara-Studzi\u0144ska","year":"2015","unstructured":"Makara-Studzi\u0144ska M, Kry\u015b-Noszczyk K, Jakiel G. The influence of selected socio- demographic variables on symptoms occurring during the menopause. Przegl\u0105d Menopauzalny. 2015;14:20\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5114\/pm.2015.48637.","journal-title":"Przegl\u0105d Menopauzalny"},{"issue":"2","key":"4441_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.5114\/pm.2021.106891","volume":"20","author":"M Krzy\u017canowska","year":"2021","unstructured":"Krzy\u017canowska M, G\u00f3recka K. Women\u2019s knowledge of the menopausal transition in relation to their socio-economic status. Menopause Rev. 2021;20(2):81\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5114\/pm.2021.106891.","journal-title":"Menopause Rev"},{"issue":"3","key":"4441_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ogc.2011.05.002","volume":"38","author":"EB Gold","year":"2011","unstructured":"Gold EB. The timing of the age at which natural menopause occurs. Obstet Gynecol Clin N Am. 2011;38(3):425\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ogc.2011.05.002.","journal-title":"Obstet Gynecol Clin N Am"},{"key":"4441_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"877920","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2022.877920","volume":"10","author":"AK Tay","year":"2022","unstructured":"Tay AK, Ocansey A. Urban\u2013rural disparities in menopausal health. Front Public Health. 2022;10:877920. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2022.877920.","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"4441_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Arnot M, Mace R. Sexual frequency is associated with age of natural menopause: results from the Study of Women\u2019s Health Across the Nation. R Soc open sci. 2020;7(191020). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rsos.191020.","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.191020"},{"issue":"2","key":"4441_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/deab246","volume":"37","author":"MS Gottschalk","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gottschalk MS, Eskild A, Hofvind S, Elisabeth K, Bjelland. The relation of number of childbirths with age at natural menopause: a population study of 310,147 women in Norway. Hum Reprod. 2022;37(2):333\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/humrep\/deab246.","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"issue":"9","key":"4441_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1843","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/dead143","volume":"38","author":"NV Scime","year":"2023","unstructured":"Scime NV, Hilary K, Brown Alison K, Shea, Erin AB. Association of infertility with type and timing of menopause: a prospective cohort study. Hum Reprod. 2023;38(9):1843\u201352. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/humrep\/dead143.","journal-title":"Hum Reprod"},{"key":"4441_CR27","volume-title":"Statistics: An Introductory Analysis","author":"T Yamane","year":"1967","unstructured":"Yamane T. Statistics: An Introductory Analysis. 2nd ed. New York: Harper and Row; 1967.","edition":"2"},{"key":"4441_CR28","unstructured":"O\u2019Neill A. Share of urban population in Nigeria 1960\u20132023. Statista. 2023. Available from: https:\/\/www.statista.com.\u00a0Cited 2026 Mar 9."},{"issue":"1","key":"4441_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1847","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-28526-y","volume":"13","author":"H Vatankhah","year":"2023","unstructured":"Vatankhah H, Khalili P, Vatanparast M, Ayoobi F, Esmaeili-Nadimi A, Jamali Z. Prevalence of early and late menopause and its determinants in the Rafsanjani cohort study. Sci Rep. 2023;13(1):1847.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"6","key":"4441_CR30","first-page":"575","volume":"54","author":"BC Ozumba","year":"2004","unstructured":"Ozumba BC, Obi O, Obikili EN, Waboso P. Age, symptoms, and perception of menopause among Nigerian women. J Obstet Gynecol India. 2004;54(6):575\u20138.","journal-title":"J Obstet Gynecol India"},{"issue":"10","key":"4441_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.1097\/GME.0000000000000319","volume":"21","author":"JL Shifren","year":"2014","unstructured":"Shifren JL, Gass ML, NAMS Recommendations for Clinical Care of Midlife Women Working Group. The North American Menopause Society recommendations for clinical care of midlife women. Menopause. 2014;21(10):1038\u201362. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/GME.0000000000000319.","journal-title":"Menopause"},{"issue":"5","key":"4441_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"860","DOI":"10.1097\/gme.0b013e3181a3cdaf","volume":"16","author":"NE Avis","year":"2009","unstructured":"Avis NE, Colvin A, Bromberger JT, Hess R, Matthews KA, Ory M, Schocken M. Change in health-related quality of life over the menopausal transition in a multiethnic cohort of middle-aged women: Study of Women\u2019s Health Across the Nation. Menopause. 2009;16(5):860\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/gme.0b013e3181a3cdaf.","journal-title":"Menopause"}],"container-title":["BMC Women's Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12905-026-04441-y","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12905-026-04441-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12905-026-04441-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T21:31:59Z","timestamp":1781645519000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s12905-026-04441-y"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["4441"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12905-026-04441-y","relation":{},"ISSN":["1472-6874"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1472-6874","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"3 November 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"30 March 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"6 April 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Ethical approval for this study was granted by the Strategic Contacts, Ethics, and Publication (STRACEP) Office at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu state (Reference number: UNN\/EC\/NSTA\/FSS-GGY-RG\/011\/31-JULY\/2025). The research was conducted in compliance with the Helsinki Declaration and the provisions of the National Code of Health Research Ethics (NHREC), Nigeria. Informed consent was obtained from all participants before data collection. Respondents were fully briefed on the objectives of the study, the voluntary nature of participation, and their right to withdraw at any stage without penalty. To ensure participants\u2019 privacy, anonymity, and confidentiality were strictly maintained throughout the research process, and all data were used solely for academic purposes.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"\u201cNot applicable\u201d.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"259"}}