{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T03:13:03Z","timestamp":1783653183491,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779062400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783641600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":53,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Women's Health"],"DOI":"10.1186\/s12905-026-04541-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T11:53:03Z","timestamp":1779105183000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Prevalence and associated factors of menstrual irregularities among reproductive-age women attending KAAH hospital, Hargeisa, Somaliland: a cross-sectional study"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Ramla","family":"Adam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdiwahab","family":"Hassan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peiter","family":"Gideon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]]},"reference":[{"issue":"88","key":"4541_CR1","first-page":"1","volume":"22","author":"N Eshetu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Eshetu N, Abebe H, Fikadu E. Premenstrual syndrome, coping mechanisms and associated factors among Wolkite university female regular students, Ethiopia, 2021. BMC Women\u2019s Health. 2022;22(88):1\u201311.","journal-title":"BMC Women\u2019s Health"},{"issue":"101","key":"4541_CR2","first-page":"1","volume":"18","author":"AB Zeru","year":"2021","unstructured":"Zeru AB, Gebeyaw ED, Ayele ET. Magnitude and associated factors of menstrual irregularity among undergraduate students of Debre Berhan University, Ethiopia. Reprod Health. 2021;18(101):1\u20138.","journal-title":"Reprod Health"},{"key":"4541_CR3","first-page":"1","volume":"19","author":"GA Khan","year":"2023","unstructured":"Khan GA, Althubaiti A, Alshrif A. Dysmenorrhea, intermenstrual bleeding, menstrual flow volume changes, and irregularities following COVID-19 vaccination and the association with vaccine skepticism: a retrospective observational study. Women\u2019s Health (Lond). 2023;19:1\u20139.","journal-title":"Women\u2019s Health (Lond)"},{"issue":"361","key":"4541_CR4","first-page":"1","volume":"23","author":"S Song","year":"2022","unstructured":"Song S, Choi H, Pang Y. Factors associated with regularity and length of menstrual cycle: Korea Nurses\u2019 Health Study. BMC Women\u2019s Health. 2022;23(361):1\u201312.","journal-title":"BMC Women\u2019s Health"},{"issue":"675","key":"4541_CR5","first-page":"1","volume":"13","author":"F Gao","year":"2025","unstructured":"Gao F, Wei Z, He J. The relationship between menstrual issues and depressive and anxiety symptoms in Chinese adolescent female inpatients: a cross-sectional questionnaire-based investigation. BMC Psychol. 2025;13(675):1\u201310.","journal-title":"BMC Psychol"},{"issue":"156","key":"4541_CR6","first-page":"1","volume":"21","author":"BM Ukoaka","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ukoaka BM, Abiodun AH, Daniel FM. The burden of menstrual irregularities among women living with HIV in Nigeria: a comprehensive review. Reprod Health. 2024;21(156):1\u201314.","journal-title":"Reprod Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"4541_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-20342-w","volume":"15","author":"N Hussein","year":"2025","unstructured":"Hussein N, Shiferaw K, Lonsako AA. Menstrual irregularity and associated factors among female adolescents in Somali region high schools Ethiopia 2023. Sci Rep. 2025;15(1):1\u201310.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"4541_CR8","first-page":"1","volume":"3","author":"YM Mittiku","year":"2021","unstructured":"Mittiku YM, Mekonen H, Wogie G. Menstrual irregularity and its associated factors among college students in Ethiopia, 2021. Front Glob Womens Health. 2021;3:1\u20139.","journal-title":"Front Glob Womens Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"4541_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpag.2024.03.005","volume":"37","author":"KG Harley","year":"2024","unstructured":"Harley KG, Watson A, Robertson S. Menstrual cycle characteristics of U.S. adolescents according to gynecological age and age at menarche. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. 2024;37(4):419\u201325.","journal-title":"J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol"},{"key":"4541_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1002\/ijgo.14236","volume":"159","author":"JA Egal","year":"2022","unstructured":"Egal JA, Kiruja J, Litorp. Incidence and causes of severe maternal outcomes in Somaliland using the sub-Saharan Africa maternal near-miss criteria: a prospective cross-sectional study in a national referral hospital. Int J Gynecol Obstet. 2022;159:856\u201364.","journal-title":"Int J Gynecol Obstet"},{"key":"4541_CR11","unstructured":"Ministry of Planning and National Development. The Somaliland Health and Demographic Survey [eBook]. Somaliland Government: UNFPA. 2020. Available from: https:\/\/www.google.com\/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjaz8_98sCEAxUOgP0HHT0VDNAQFnoECA4QAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fsomalia.unfpa.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fpub-pdf%2Fslhds2020_report_2020.pdf&usg=AOvVaw2kRc8_BPXparJTqnB5-KYI&opi=89978449. Accessed 10 April. 2026."},{"issue":"7","key":"4541_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1111\/1471-0528.18109","volume":"132","author":"BW Alemu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Alemu BW, Waljer M, Tooth LR. The association between menstrual disorders and workforce participation: a prospective longitudinal. BJOG. 2025;132(7):961\u201371.","journal-title":"BJOG"},{"issue":"462","key":"4541_CR13","first-page":"1","volume":"23","author":"L Xiaoyang","year":"2023","unstructured":"Xiaoyang L, Yang H, Yan M. The mediating role of menstrual irregularity on obesity and sexual function in Chinese women with pelvic floor disorders: a cross-sectional study. BMC Women\u2019s Health. 2023;23(462):1\u20139.","journal-title":"BMC Women\u2019s Health"},{"issue":"9","key":"4541_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.70034","volume":"14","author":"S Kiyak","year":"2024","unstructured":"Kiyak S, Bati S. The relationship between menstrual cycle pattern and post-traumatic stress in women following the 2023 earthquake in Turkey. Brain Behav. 2024;14(9):1\u201310.","journal-title":"Brain Behav"},{"issue":"11","key":"4541_CR15","first-page":"1","volume":"15","author":"GM Attia","year":"2023","unstructured":"Attia GM, Alharbi OA, Aljohani RM. The impact of irregular menstruation on health: a review of the literature. Cureus. 2023;15(11):1\u20139.","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"issue":"10","key":"4541_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.2188\/jea.JE20240424","volume":"35","author":"Y Matsumura","year":"2025","unstructured":"Matsumura Y, Yamamoto R, Shinzawa M. Psychological and physical stress response and incidence of irregular menstruation in female university employees: a retrospective cohort study. J Epidemiol. 2025;35(10):425\u201331.","journal-title":"J Epidemiol"},{"issue":"2","key":"4541_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-022-01266-x","volume":"10","author":"CE Agbakwu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Agbakwu CE, Fox KA, Thomas AB. Influence of female genital mutilation\/cutting on health morbidity, health service utilization and satisfaction with care among Somali women and teenage girls in the United States. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2022;10(2):788\u201396.","journal-title":"J Racial Ethn Health Disparities"},{"issue":"3","key":"4541_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2022-067315","volume":"13","author":"RT Maregn","year":"2023","unstructured":"Maregn RT, Bourret K, Egal JA. Qualitative study of the roles of midwives in the provision of sexual and reproductive healthcare services in the Somaliland health system. BMJ Open. 2023;13(3):1\u20138.","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"issue":"386","key":"4541_CR19","first-page":"1","volume":"8","author":"G Sawyer","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sawyer G, Howe LD. Menstrual cycle features in mothers and daughters in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Wellcome Open Res. 2023;8(386):1\u201347.","journal-title":"Wellcome Open Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"4541_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/16549716.2024.2433331","volume":"17","author":"P Das","year":"2024","unstructured":"Das P, Jungari S. Prevalence, risk factors and health-seeking behavior of menstrual disorders among women in India: a review of two-decade evidence. Glob Health Action. 2024;17(1):1\u201311.","journal-title":"Glob Health Action"},{"issue":"2","key":"4541_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjph-2023-000716","volume":"2","author":"SK Eva","year":"2024","unstructured":"Eva SK, Aufi SS, Mamun AS. Depression and its association with menstrual disturbance among female university students: a cross\u2014sectional study. BMJ Public Health. 2024;2(2):1\u20138.","journal-title":"BMJ Public Health"},{"issue":"498","key":"4541_CR22","first-page":"1","volume":"22","author":"AO Ali","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ali AO, Abdi A, Egge A. Exploring the magnitude and determinants of ovulatory period knowledge among young women in Somalia: a multilevel analysis utilizing data from the 2020 Somali Health and Demographic Survey (SHDS). Discover Public Health. 2025;22(498):1\u201316.","journal-title":"Discover Public Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"4541_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.2307\/2136404","volume":"24","author":"S Cohen","year":"1983","unstructured":"Cohen S, Kamarck T, Mermelstein R. A global measure of perceived stress. J Health Soc Behav. 1983;24(4):385\u201396.","journal-title":"J Health Soc Behav"},{"issue":"10","key":"4541_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.166.10.1092","volume":"166","author":"RL Spitzer","year":"2006","unstructured":"Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JB, L\u00f6we B. A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(10):1092\u201397.","journal-title":"Arch Intern Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"4541_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40738-020-00093-0","volume":"7","author":"MG Madziyire","year":"2021","unstructured":"Madziyire MG, Magwali TL, Chikwasha V. The causes of infertility in women presenting to gynaecology clinics in Harare, Zimbabwe; a cross sectional study. Fertil Res Pract. 2021;7(1):1\u20138.","journal-title":"Fertil Res Pract"},{"issue":"3","key":"4541_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1007\/s40801-025-00504-y","volume":"12","author":"L Wastila","year":"2025","unstructured":"Wastila L, Fu YH, Tung CC. Association between vaccination for human papillomavirus (HPV) and autonomic dysfunction and menstrual irregularities: a self-controlled case series analysis. Drugs Real World Outcomes. 2025;12(3):467\u201377.","journal-title":"Drugs Real World Outcomes"},{"issue":"3275","key":"4541_CR27","first-page":"1","volume":"13","author":"S Ravi","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ravi S, Ihalainen JK, Mikkonen RS. Self-reported restrictive eating, eating disorders, menstrual dysfunction, and injuries in athletes competing at different levels and sports. Nutrients. 2021;13(3275):1\u201311.","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"issue":"12","key":"4541_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7769","DOI":"10.4103\/jfmpc.jfmpc_1201_22","volume":"11","author":"P Bhardwaj","year":"2022","unstructured":"Bhardwaj P, Yadav SK, Taneja J. Magnitude and associated factors of menstrual irregularity among young girls: a cross-sectional study during COVID-19 second wave in India. J Family Med Prim Care. 2022;11(12):7769\u201375.","journal-title":"J Family Med Prim Care"},{"issue":"26","key":"4541_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000038771","volume":"103","author":"HS Kucukerdem","year":"2024","unstructured":"Kucukerdem HS, Ozdemir TD. Evaluation of menstrual irregularities following COVID-19 infection or vaccination: the impact of COVID anxiety and associated risk factors. Medicine. 2024;103(26):1\u20136.","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"4541_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.35371\/aoem.2023.35.e30","volume":"35","author":"HN Jung","year":"2023","unstructured":"Jung HN, Suh D, Jeong WC. Associations of chronotype and insomnia with menstrual problem in newly employed nurses at university hospitals in the Republic of Korea. Ann Occup Environ Med. 2023;35:1\u201313.","journal-title":"Ann Occup Environ Med"},{"issue":"3436","key":"4541_CR31","first-page":"1","volume":"13","author":"M Miyamoto","year":"2021","unstructured":"Miyamoto M, Hanatani Y, Shibuya K. Relationship among nutritional intake, anxiety, and menstrual irregularity in Elite Rowers. Nutrients. 2021;13(3436):1\u20137.","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"issue":"9","key":"4541_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0310995","volume":"19","author":"LC Sen","year":"2024","unstructured":"Sen LC, Jahan I, Salekin N. Food craving, vitamin A, and menstrual disorders: a comprehensive study on university female students. PLoS ONE. 2024;19(9):1\u201319.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"4541_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/20503121241259623","volume":"12","author":"I Mussa","year":"2024","unstructured":"Mussa I, Jibro U, Balis B. Burden of irregular menstrual cycle and its predictors among reproductive-age women in Ethiopia: systematic review and meta-analysis. SAGE Open Med. 2024;12:1\u201312.","journal-title":"SAGE Open Med"},{"key":"4541_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/3047526","volume":"3047526","author":"S Patel","year":"2022","unstructured":"Patel S, Pushpalatha K, Singh B. Evaluation of hormonal profile and ovarian morphology among adolescent girls with menstrual irregularities in a tertiary care centre at Central India. Sci World J. 2022;3047526:1\u20138.","journal-title":"Sci World J"},{"issue":"1","key":"4541_CR35","first-page":"412","volume":"6","author":"A Misra","year":"2025","unstructured":"Misra A, Wolfe O, Azziz R. The impact of childhood abuse and neglect on the development of features of polycystic ovary syndrome: a pilot study. Womens Health Rep (New Rochelle). 2025;6(1):412\u201320.","journal-title":"Womens Health Rep (New Rochelle)"},{"issue":"7","key":"4541_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4194","DOI":"10.1097\/MS9.0000000000003394","volume":"87","author":"IE Obeagu","year":"2025","unstructured":"Obeagu IE. Prevalence and risk factors of heavy menstrual bleeding in Africa: a narrative review. Annals Med Surg. 2025;87(7):4194\u2013200.","journal-title":"Annals Med Surg"}],"container-title":["BMC Women's Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12905-026-04541-9","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12905-026-04541-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12905-026-04541-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T02:20:28Z","timestamp":1783650028000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s12905-026-04541-9"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["4541"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12905-026-04541-9","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-8436991\/v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1472-6874"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1472-6874","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]]},"assertion":[{"value":"23 December 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"11 May 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"18 May 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Ethical approval was secured from the appropriate Institutional Review Board (IRB) of KAAH Hospital. Informed consent had been obtained from all participants after explaining the study's purpose, confidentiality, and voluntary nature. Prior to enrolment, informed consent was obtained from the parents or legal guardians of participants under the age of 16 (i.e., 15-year-olds), in addition to verbal assent from the individuals themselves when possible. All participants gave their informed consent after being informed in Somali or English of the study's goals, methods, risks, and advantages; low-literate women gave their verbal approval. Participants could leave at any moment without having an impact on care. Anonymized data storage, password-protected digital entry, and limited access to the study team were all used to guarantee confidentiality. There were no rewards offered to prevent coercion. After publication, data will be kept for five years for auditing purposes before being safely destroyed. This inquiry adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki's requirements.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"346"}}