{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T20:37:57Z","timestamp":1792787877811,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":19,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790294400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791331200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":12,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"Hubei University of Medicine Yaohu College","award":["YHJ2024009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YHJ2024009"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01dr2b756","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Med Educ"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Immersive virtual reality (VR) can facilitate three-dimensional anatomy learning but may not reproduce the haptic information, representational variability, and retrieval demands encountered in physical anatomy learning. We examined performance beyond immediate recognition of standardized representations.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We integrated data from three routine educational-assessment modules at one medical school, with the comparative analysis framework specified post hoc. Forty first-year students without previous cadaver-dissection experience received pure-VR or cadaver-based instruction in two intact classes (20 per condition). The three focal outcomes, designated post hoc for the integrated analysis, were peak force during a standardized cadaver task, accuracy for noncanonical CT\/MRI cases, and the condition-by-time interaction in knowledge scores from 30\u00a0min to four weeks. Estimates are reported with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) and effect sizes.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The pure-VR condition showed greater peak force during transfer to cadaveric tissue (8.74\u2009\u00b1\u20092.31 vs. 4.52\u2009\u00b1\u20091.68\u00a0N; mean difference [MD], 4.22\u00a0N; 95% CI, 2.92\u20135.52; Cohen\u2019s\n                      <jats:italic>d<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20092.09) and less controlled secondary performance. The standardized-model estimate included no difference (0.91\u2009\u00b1\u20090.06 vs. 0.87\u2009\u00b1\u20090.08;\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      = .082), whereas noncanonical-case accuracy was lower in the pure-VR condition (0.52\u2009\u00b1\u20090.14 vs. 0.71\u2009\u00b1\u20090.11; MD, \u2212\u20090.19; 95% CI, \u2212\u20090.27 to \u2212\u20090.11). Immediate scores were compatible with no difference; at four weeks, the pure-VR condition scored lower (11.75\u2009\u00b1\u20094.63 vs. 17.20\u2009\u00b1\u20094.05; MD, \u2212\u20095.45; 95% CI, \u2212\u20098.24 to \u2212\u20092.66). The reported condition-by-time interaction was\n                      <jats:italic>F<\/jats:italic>\n                      (2, 76)\u2009=\u200915.38,\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      &lt; .001, partial \u03b7\u00b2 = 0.29.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Pure-VR instruction showed no clear deficit in immediate learning or standardized recognition, but was associated with less controlled tissue handling, lower transfer to noncanonical images, and weaker delayed retrieval. Because condition was confounded with intact class, the sample was small, and the modules were analyzed post hoc, the findings are exploratory and noncausal. VR may be most useful within a competency-aligned blended curriculum.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12909-026-10481-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T11:22:06Z","timestamp":1790335326000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Haptic and cognitive trade-offs of virtual reality\u2013supported anatomy education: a retrospective multimethod cohort comparison"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Songyuan","family":"Yao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rui","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiju","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"reference":[{"issue":"5","key":"10481_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.70027","volume":"18","author":"S Adnan","year":"2025","unstructured":"Adnan S, Benson AC, Xiao J. How virtual reality is being adopted in anatomy education in health sciences and allied health: a systematic review. Anat Sci Educ. 2025;18(5):496\u2013525. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ase.70027.","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"issue":"9","key":"10481_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1668","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.2501","volume":"17","author":"S Salimi","year":"2024","unstructured":"Salimi S, Asgari Z, Mohammadnejad A, Teimazi A, Bakhtiari M. Efficacy of virtual reality and augmented reality in anatomy education: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Anat Sci Educ. 2024;17(9):1668\u201385. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ase.2501.","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"issue":"3","key":"10481_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.2397","volume":"17","author":"P Garc\u00eda-Robles","year":"2024","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda-Robles P, Cort\u00e9s-P\u00e9rez I, Nieto-Esc\u00e1mez FA, Garc\u00eda-L\u00f3pez H, Obrero-Gait\u00e1n E, Osuna-P\u00e9rez MC. Immersive virtual reality and augmented reality in anatomy education: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Anat Sci Educ. 2024;17(3):514\u201328. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ase.2397.","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"issue":"3","key":"10481_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.2049","volume":"14","author":"C Moro","year":"2021","unstructured":"Moro C, Birt J, Stromberga Z, Phelps C, Clark J, Glasziou P, et al. Virtual and augmented reality enhancements to medical and science student physiology and anatomy test performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Anat Sci Educ. 2021;14(3):368\u201376. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ase.2049.","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"issue":"6","key":"10481_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.1696","volume":"10","author":"C Moro","year":"2017","unstructured":"Moro C, \u0160tromberga Z, Raikos A, Stirling A. The effectiveness of virtual and augmented reality in health sciences and medical anatomy. Anat Sci Educ. 2017;10(6):549\u201359. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ase.1696.","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"key":"10481_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1186\/s12909-020-1994-z","volume":"20","author":"J Zhao","year":"2020","unstructured":"Zhao J, Xu X, Jiang H, Ding Y. The effectiveness of virtual reality-based technology on anatomy teaching: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies. BMC Med Educ. 2020;20:127. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12909-020-1994-z.","journal-title":"BMC Med Educ"},{"issue":"2","key":"10481_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e34687","DOI":"10.2196\/34687","volume":"8","author":"N Wickramasinghe","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wickramasinghe N, Thompson BR, Xiao J. The opportunities and challenges of digital anatomy for medical sciences: narrative review. JMIR Med Educ. 2022;8(2):e34687. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2196\/34687.","journal-title":"JMIR Med Educ"},{"issue":"4","key":"10481_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.1355","volume":"6","author":"Z Khot","year":"2013","unstructured":"Khot Z, Quinlan K, Norman GR, Wainman B. The relative effectiveness of computer-based and traditional resources for education in anatomy. Anat Sci Educ. 2013;6(4):211\u20135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ase.1355.","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"issue":"3","key":"10481_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.214","volume":"4","author":"AM Codd","year":"2011","unstructured":"Codd AM, Choudhury B. Virtual reality anatomy: is it comparable with traditional methods in the teaching of human forearm musculoskeletal anatomy? Anat Sci Educ. 2011;4(3):119\u201325. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ase.214.","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"issue":"2","key":"10481_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.2095","volume":"15","author":"K Gloy","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gloy K, Weyhe P, Nerenz E, Kaluschke M, Uslar V, Zachmann G, et al. Immersive Anatomy Atlas: learning factual medical knowledge in a virtual reality environment. Anat Sci Educ. 2022;15(2):360\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ase.2095.","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"issue":"5","key":"10481_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.1959","volume":"13","author":"R Kurul","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kurul R, \u00d6g\u00fcn MN, Narin AN, Avci \u015e, Yazgan B. An alternative method for anatomy training: immersive virtual reality. Anat Sci Educ. 2020;13(5):648\u201356. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ase.1959.","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"key":"10481_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151817","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aanat.2021.151817","volume":"239","author":"L Taylor","year":"2022","unstructured":"Taylor L, Dyer T, Al-Azzawi M, Smith C, Nzeako O, Shah Z. Extended reality anatomy undergraduate teaching: a literature review on an alternative method of learning. Ann Anat. 2022;239:151817. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.aanat.2021.151817.","journal-title":"Ann Anat"},{"issue":"4","key":"10481_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.1345","volume":"6","author":"D Preece","year":"2013","unstructured":"Preece D, Williams SB, Lam R, Weller R. Let\u2019s get physical: advantages of a physical model over 3D computer models and textbooks in learning imaging anatomy. Anat Sci Educ. 2013;6(4):216\u201324. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ase.1345.","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"issue":"1","key":"10481_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1109\/TOH.2010.19","volume":"4","author":"TR Coles","year":"2011","unstructured":"Coles TR, Meglan D, John NW. The role of haptics in medical training simulators: a survey of the state of the art. IEEE Trans Haptics. 2011;4(1):51\u201366. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TOH.2010.19.","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Haptics"},{"issue":"4","key":"10481_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03196322","volume":"9","author":"M Wilson","year":"2002","unstructured":"Wilson M. Six views of embodied cognition. Psychon Bull Rev. 2002;9(4):625\u201336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/BF03196322.","journal-title":"Psychon Bull Rev"},{"key":"10481_CR16","first-page":"56","volume-title":"Psychology and the Real World","author":"EL Bjork","year":"2011","unstructured":"Bjork EL, Bjork RA. Making things hard on yourself, but in a good way: creating desirable difficulties to enhance learning. In: Gernsbacher MA, Pew RW, Hough LM, Pomerantz JR, editors. Psychology and the Real World. New York: Worth; 2011. pp. 56\u201364."},{"issue":"6043","key":"10481_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1207745","volume":"333","author":"B Sparrow","year":"2011","unstructured":"Sparrow B, Liu J, Wegner DM. Google effects on memory: cognitive consequences of having information at our fingertips. Science. 2011;333(6043):776\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.1207745.","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"1","key":"10481_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1007\/s40670-022-01701-y","volume":"33","author":"S Sinha","year":"2023","unstructured":"Sinha S, DeYoung V, Nehru A, et al. Determinants of learning anatomy in an immersive virtual reality environment: a scoping review. Med Sci Educ. 2023;33(1):287\u201397. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40670-022-01701-y.","journal-title":"Med Sci Educ"},{"issue":"10","key":"10481_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e296","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0040296","volume":"4","author":"E von Elm","year":"2007","unstructured":"von Elm E, Altman DG, Egger M, Pocock SJ, G\u00f8tzsche PC, Vandenbroucke JP, STROBE Initiative. The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) statement: guidelines for reporting observational studies. PLoS Med. 2007;4(10):e296. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pmed.0040296.","journal-title":"PLoS Med"}],"container-title":["BMC Medical Education"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12909-026-10481-7","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12909-026-10481-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12909-026-10481-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T07:16:31Z","timestamp":1791357391000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s12909-026-10481-7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"references-count":19,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["10481"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12909-026-10481-7","relation":{},"ISSN":["1472-6920"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1472-6920","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"assertion":[{"value":"18 July 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"22 September 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"25 September 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The study protocol and secondary research use of anonymized routine educational-assessment data were approved by the Ethics Review Committee of Hubei University of Medicine on 19 July 2025 (approval no. 2025-RE-024), before data collection. The approval covered the educational records and assessments reported in this study. All participants provided written informed consent for research use of anonymized data generated during routine teaching.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The manuscript contains no identifiable individual participant information.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent for publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"1595"}}