{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,29]],"date-time":"2026-10-29T12:14:47Z","timestamp":1793276087392,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":158,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]],"date-time":"2025-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736899200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]],"date-time":"2025-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736899200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"IVADO Tech 3 lab, HEC Montreal"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008240","name":"Fonds de Recherche du Qu\u00e9bec-Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 et Culture","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008240","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012767","name":"HEC Montr\u00e9al","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012767","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Canada-CIFAR Chair in Artificial Intelligence, Canada"},{"name":"Canada Research Chair in Collaborative Culture in Health Law and Policy"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Med Ethics"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>Considering the disruptive potential of AI technology, its current and future impact in healthcare, as well as healthcare professionals\u2019 lack of training in how to use it, the paper summarizes how to approach the challenges of AI from an ethical and legal perspective. It concludes with suggestions for improvements to help healthcare professionals better navigate the AI wave.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>We analyzed the literature that specifically discusses ethics and law related to the development and implementation of AI in healthcare as well as relevant normative documents that pertain to both ethical and legal issues. After such analysis, we created categories regrouping the most frequently cited and discussed ethical and legal issues. We then proposed a breakdown within such categories that emphasizes the different - yet often interconnecting - ways in which ethics and law are approached for each category of issues. Finally, we identified several key ideas for healthcare professionals and organizations to better integrate ethics and law into their practices.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>We identified six categories of issues related to AI development and implementation in healthcare: (1) privacy; (2) individual autonomy; (3) bias; (4) responsibility and liability; (5) evaluation and oversight; and (6) work, professions and the job market. While each one raises different questions depending on perspective, we propose three main legal and ethical priorities: education and training of healthcare professionals, offering support and guidance throughout the use of AI systems, and integrating the necessary ethical and legal reflection at the heart of the AI tools themselves.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>By highlighting the main ethical and legal issues involved in the development and implementation of AI technologies in healthcare, we illustrate their profound effects on professionals as well as their relationship with patients and other organizations in the healthcare sector. We must be able to identify AI technologies in medical practices and distinguish them by their nature so we can better react and respond to them. Healthcare professionals need to work closely with ethicists and lawyers involved in the healthcare system, or the development of reliable and trusted AI will be jeopardized.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12910-024-01158-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]],"date-time":"2025-01-15T10:19:28Z","timestamp":1736936368000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":68,"title":["High-reward, high-risk technologies? An ethical and legal account of AI development in healthcare"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Maelenn","family":"Corfmat","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jo\u00e9 T.","family":"Martineau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Catherine","family":"R\u00e9gis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"1158_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153316","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3127881","volume":"9","author":"M Nazar","year":"2021","unstructured":"Nazar M, Alam MM, Yafi E, Su\u2019ud MM. A Systematic Review of Human\u2013Computer Interaction and Explainable Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare With Artificial Intelligence Techniques. IEEE Access. 2021;9:153316\u201348.","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"1158_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Azencott CA. Machine learning and genomics: precision medicine versus patient privacy. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences [Internet]. 2018 Sep 13 [cited 2022 Dec 15]; Available from: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rsta.2017.0350","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2017.0350"},{"issue":"1","key":"1158_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1007\/s11886-013-0441-8","volume":"16","author":"SE Dilsizian","year":"2014","unstructured":"Dilsizian SE, Siegel EL. Artificial intelligence in medicine and cardiac imaging: harnessing big data and advanced computing to provide personalized medical diagnosis and treatment. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2014;16(1):441.","journal-title":"Curr Cardiol Rep"},{"issue":"5","key":"1158_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1308\/147870804290","volume":"86","author":"AN Ramesh","year":"2004","unstructured":"Ramesh AN, Kambhampati C, Monson JRT, Drew PJ. Artificial intelligence in medicine. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 2004;86(5):334\u20138.","journal-title":"Ann R Coll Surg Engl"},{"issue":"2","key":"1158_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdx781","volume":"29","author":"SP Somashekhar","year":"2018","unstructured":"Somashekhar SP, Sep\u00falveda MJ, Puglielli S, Norden AD, Shortliffe EH, Rohit Kumar C, et al. Watson for Oncology and breast cancer treatment recommendations: agreement with an expert multidisciplinary tumor board. Ann Oncol. 2018;29(2):418\u201323.","journal-title":"Ann Oncol"},{"key":"1158_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Li Y. Research and Application of Deep Learning in Image Recognition. In: 2022 IEEE 2nd International Conference on Power, Electronics and Computer Applications (ICPECA) [Internet]. 2022. pp. 994\u20139. Available from: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/annonc\/mdx781","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdx781"},{"issue":"2","key":"1158_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.2478\/v10136-012-0031-x","volume":"11","author":"F Amato","year":"2013","unstructured":"Amato F, L\u00f3pez A, Pe\u00f1a-M\u00e9ndez EM, Va\u0148hara P, Hampl A, Havel J. Artificial neural networks in medical diagnosis. J Appl Biomed. 2013;11(2):47\u201358.","journal-title":"J Appl Biomed"},{"key":"1158_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Motulsky A, Nikiema JN, Despr\u00e9s P, Castonguay A, Cousineau M, Martineau JT et al. Promesses de l\u2019IA en sant\u00e9 [Internet]. Qu\u00e9bec: Observatoire international sur les impacts soci\u00e9taux de l\u2019IA et du num\u00e9rique; 2022 Oct [cited 2023 Oct 18]. Available from: https:\/\/docdro.id\/OGeIz8c","DOI":"10.61737\/VOTF6751"},{"key":"1158_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lawson BE, Atakan Varol H, Sup F, Goldfarb M. Stumble detection and classification for an intelligent transfemoral prosthesis. In: 2010 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology [Internet]. 2010. pp. 511\u20134. Available from: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/IEMBS.2010.5626021","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMBS.2010.5626021"},{"issue":"10325","key":"1158_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)00235-5","volume":"399","author":"A Aristidou","year":"2022","unstructured":"Aristidou A, Jena R, Topol EJ. Bridging the chasm between AI and clinical implementation. Lancet. 2022;399(10325):620.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"5","key":"1158_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1080\/15265161.2022.2055218","volume":"22","author":"K Ferryman","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ferryman K. Rethinking the AI Chasm. Am J Bioeth. 2022;22(5):29\u201330.","journal-title":"Am J Bioeth"},{"key":"1158_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karpathakis K, Morley J, Floridi L. A Justifiable Investment in AI for Healthcare: Aligning Ambition with Reality [Internet]., Rochester NY. 2024 [cited 2024 Aug 15]. Available from: https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/abstract=4795198","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4795198"},{"key":"1158_CR13","unstructured":"R\u00e9gis C, Laverdiere M. Soutenir l\u2019encadrement des pratiques professionnelles en mati\u00e8re d\u2019intelligence artificielle dans le secteur de la sant\u00e9 et des relations humaines: Proposition d\u2019un prototype de code de d\u00e9ontologie [Internet]. Montreal: University of Montreal H-POD; 2023 [cited 2023 Sep 8] p. 36. Available from: https:\/\/www.docdroid.net\/dNycfuv\/document-final-iacodedeontologiesante-pdf"},{"key":"1158_CR14","unstructured":"OECD. OECD Framework for the Classification of AI systems [Internet]. 2022. Available from: https:\/\/www.oecd-ilibrary.org\/content\/paper\/cb6d9eca-en"},{"key":"1158_CR15","unstructured":"OECD. Artificial Intelligence in Society [Internet]. 2019. Available from: https:\/\/www.oecd-ilibrary.org\/content\/publication\/eedfee77-en"},{"key":"1158_CR16","unstructured":"OECD. Explanatory memorandum on the updated OECD definition of an AI system [Internet]. Paris: OECD. 2024 Mar [cited 2024 Aug 16]. Available from: https:\/\/www.oecd-ilibrary.org\/science-and-technology\/explanatory-memorandum-on-the-updated-oecd-definition-of-an-ai-system_623da898-en"},{"issue":"4","key":"1158_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.3390\/bios12040234","volume":"12","author":"P Tan","year":"2022","unstructured":"Tan P, Xi Y, Chao S, Jiang D, Liu Z, Fan Y, et al. An Artificial Intelligence-Enhanced Blood Pressure Monitor Wristband Based on Piezoelectric Nanogenerator. Biosens (Basel). 2022;12(4):234.","journal-title":"Biosens (Basel)"},{"key":"1158_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.58496\/MJAIH\/2023\/008","volume":"2023","author":"A Hussein","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hussein A, Sallam ME, Abdalla MYA. Exploring New Horizons: Surgical Robots Supported by Artificial Intelligence. Mesopotamian J Artif Intell Healthc. 2023;2023:40\u20134.","journal-title":"Mesopotamian J Artif Intell Healthc"},{"key":"1158_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104787","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2021.104787","volume":"137","author":"N Min-Allah","year":"2021","unstructured":"Min-Allah N, Alahmed BA, Albreek EM, Alghamdi LS, Alawad DA, Alharbi AS, et al. A survey of COVID-19 contact-tracing apps. Comput Biol Med. 2021;137:104787.","journal-title":"Comput Biol Med"},{"issue":"7","key":"1158_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2328","DOI":"10.4103\/jfmpc.jfmpc_440_19","volume":"8","author":"P Amisha, Malik","year":"2019","unstructured":"Amisha, Malik P, Pathania M, Rathaur VK. Overview of artificial intelligence in medicine. J Family Med Prim Care. 2019;8(7):2328\u201331.","journal-title":"J Family Med Prim Care"},{"issue":"2","key":"1158_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1080\/13645706.2019.1575882","volume":"28","author":"Y Mintz","year":"2019","unstructured":"Mintz Y, Brodie R. Introduction to artificial intelligence in medicine. Minim Invasive Therapy Allied Technol. 2019;28(2):73\u201381.","journal-title":"Minim Invasive Therapy Allied Technol"},{"key":"1158_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaheen MY. Applications of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in healthcare: A review. ScienceOpen Preprints [Internet]. 2021 Sep 25 [cited 2024 Aug 4]; Available from: https:\/\/www.scienceopen.com\/hosted-document?doi=10.14293\/S2199-1006.1.SOR-.PPVRY8K.v1","DOI":"10.14293\/S2199-1006.1.SOR-.PPVRY8K.v1"},{"key":"1158_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.30699\/fhi.v12i0.524","volume":"12","author":"K Kimiafar","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kimiafar K, Sarbaz M, Tabatabaei SM, Ghaddaripouri K, Mousavi A, Mehneh M, et al. Artificial Intelligence Literacy Among Healthcare Professionals and Students: A Systematic Review. Front Health Inf. 2023;12:168.","journal-title":"Front Health Inf"},{"issue":"3","key":"1158_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1093\/jamia\/ocz192","volume":"27","author":"S Reddy","year":"2020","unstructured":"Reddy S, Allan S, Coghlan S, Cooper P. A governance model for the application of AI in health care. J Am Med Inform Assoc. 2020;27(3):491\u20137.","journal-title":"J Am Med Inform Assoc"},{"key":"1158_CR25","unstructured":"AI Index. Report 2023 \u2013 Artificial Intelligence Index [Internet]. [cited 2023 Jul 5]. Available from: https:\/\/aiindex.stanford.edu\/report\/"},{"issue":"9","key":"1158_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1038\/s42256-019-0088-2","volume":"1","author":"A Jobin","year":"2019","unstructured":"Jobin A, Ienca M, Vayena E. The global landscape of AI ethics guidelines. Nat Mach Intell. 2019;1(9):389\u201399.","journal-title":"Nat Mach Intell"},{"key":"1158_CR27","unstructured":"World Health Organization. WHO guideline. [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2020 Nov 28]. Available from: http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK541902\/"},{"key":"1158_CR28","unstructured":"The Declaration [Internet]. D\u00e9claration de Montr\u00e9al IA responsable. [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/montrealdeclaration-responsibleai.com\/the-declaration\/"},{"key":"1158_CR29","unstructured":"Google AI. [Internet]. [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Google AI Principles. Available from: https:\/\/ai.google\/responsibility\/principles\/"},{"key":"1158_CR30","unstructured":"AI Ethics | IBM [Internet]. [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/www.ibm.com\/topics\/ai-ethics"},{"key":"1158_CR31","unstructured":"Microsoft Responsible. AI | Microsoft AI [Internet]. [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/www.microsoft.com\/en-us\/ai\/responsible-ai"},{"key":"1158_CR32","unstructured":"Telia Company [Internet]. [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/www.teliacompany.com\/en\/articles\/ai-ethics"},{"key":"1158_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Boddington P. Towards a Code of Ethics for Artificial Intelligence [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017 [cited 2024 Aug 4]. (Artificial Intelligence: Foundations, Theory, and Algorithms). Available from: http:\/\/link.springer.com\/https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-60648-4","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-60648-4"},{"key":"1158_CR34","unstructured":"Bouquet B. \u00c9thique et travail social [Internet]. Dunod. Paris: Dunod; 2017 [cited 2023 Jul 5]. 288 p. (Sant\u00e9 Social). Available from: https:\/\/www.dunod.com\/sciences-humaines-et-sociales\/ethique-et-travail-social-une-recherche-du-sens-0"},{"issue":"6","key":"1158_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101937","DOI":"10.1016\/j.telpol.2020.101937","volume":"44","author":"M Robles Carrillo","year":"2020","unstructured":"Robles Carrillo M. Artificial intelligence: From ethics to law. Telecomm Policy. 2020;44(6):101937.","journal-title":"Telecomm Policy"},{"key":"1158_CR36","unstructured":"Larose G. Droit, d\u00e9ontologie et \u00e9thique clinique. In: \u00c9thique clinique : un guide pour aborder la pratique [Internet]. Montreal: Sainte Justine Hospital; 2015 [cited 2023 Feb 1]. pp. 89\u201396. (Actions cliniques). Available from: https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?hl=fr&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=%C3%89thique+clinique+%3A+un+guide+pour+aborder+la+pratique&btnG="},{"issue":"1","key":"1158_CR37","first-page":"4","volume":"11","author":"M Pimont","year":"2016","unstructured":"Pimont M. L\u2019\u00e9thique : fondements, approches et applications en sant\u00e9 et services sociaux. Equilibre. 2016;11(1):4\u201315.","journal-title":"Equilibre"},{"key":"1158_CR38","unstructured":"Stanford University Human-centered Artificial Intelligence. Artificial Intelligence Index Report 2024 [Internet]. Stanford University Human-centered Artificial Intelligence; 2024 [cited 2024 Aug 16] p. 502. Report No.: Index. Available from: https:\/\/aiindex.stanford.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/05\/HAI_AI-Index-Report-2024.pdf"},{"key":"1158_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-97676-1_5","volume-title":"Artificial General Intelligence","author":"A Dameski","year":"2018","unstructured":"Dameski A. A Comprehensive Ethical Framework for AI Entities: Foundations. In: Ikl\u00e9 M, Franz A, Rzepka R, Goertzel B, editors. Artificial General Intelligence. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2018. pp. 42\u201351."},{"issue":"11","key":"1158_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1051\/medsci\/2020189","volume":"36","author":"A Jean","year":"2020","unstructured":"Jean A. Une br\u00e8ve introduction \u00e0 l\u2019intelligence artificielle. Med Sci (Paris). 2020;36(11):1059\u201367.","journal-title":"Med Sci (Paris)"},{"key":"1158_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2021.117913","volume":"305","author":"Q Cai","year":"2022","unstructured":"Cai Q, Luo X, Wang P, Gao C, Zhao P. Hybrid model-driven and data-driven control method based on machine learning algorithm in energy hub and application. Appl Energy. 2022;305:117913.","journal-title":"Appl Energy"},{"key":"1158_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100568","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jemep.2020.100568","volume":"15","author":"BY Anom","year":"2020","unstructured":"Anom BY. Ethics of Big Data and artificial intelligence in medicine. Ethics Med Public Health. 2020;15:100568.","journal-title":"Ethics Med Public Health"},{"issue":"11","key":"1158_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1695","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444816636090","volume":"19","author":"T Sharon","year":"2017","unstructured":"Sharon T, Zandbergen D. From data fetishism to quantifying selves: Self-tracking practices and the other values of data. New Media Soc. 2017;19(11):1695\u2013709.","journal-title":"New Media Soc"},{"key":"1158_CR44","unstructured":"Lupton D. The Quantified Self. Wiley; 2016. p. 196."},{"issue":"2","key":"1158_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1145\/503345.503347","volume":"31","author":"GJ Walters","year":"2001","unstructured":"Walters GJ. Privacy and security: an ethical analysis. SIGCAS Comput Soc. 2001;31(2):8\u201323.","journal-title":"SIGCAS Comput Soc"},{"key":"1158_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Goodman K. Ethics in Health Informatics. Yearbook of Medical Informatics [Internet]. 2020;29. Available from: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1055\/s-0040-1701966","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0040-1701966"},{"key":"1158_CR47","unstructured":"Beauchamp TL, Childress JF. Principles of Biomedical Ethics [Internet]. Oxford University Press; 2001. 470 p. Available from: https:\/\/books.google.ca\/books?id=_14H7MOw1o4C"},{"issue":"1","key":"1158_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1136\/medethics-2014-102282","volume":"41","author":"R Gillon","year":"2015","unstructured":"Gillon R. Defending the four principles approach as a good basis for good medical practice and therefore for good medical ethics. J Med Ethics. 2015;41(1):111\u20136.","journal-title":"J Med Ethics"},{"issue":"2","key":"1158_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1007\/s10982-017-9307-3","volume":"37","author":"D Mokrosinska","year":"2018","unstructured":"Mokrosinska D. Privacy and Autonomy: On Some Misconceptions Concerning the Political Dimensions of Privacy. Law Philos. 2018;37(2):117\u201343.","journal-title":"Law Philos"},{"key":"1158_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Koepsell D. Duties of Science to Society (and Vice Versa). In: Koepsell D, editor. Scientific Integrity and Research Ethics: An Approach from the Ethos of Science [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017 [cited 2023 Jul 5]. pp. 85\u201395. (SpringerBriefs in Ethics). Available from: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-51277-8_8","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-51277-8_8"},{"issue":"2","key":"1158_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.3917\/rsi.089.0033","volume":"89","author":"M Formarier","year":"2007","unstructured":"Formarier M. La relation de soin, concepts et finalit\u00e9s. Recherche en soins infirmiers. 2007;89(2):33\u201342.","journal-title":"Recherche en soins infirmiers"},{"issue":"8","key":"1158_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1038\/s41928-019-0290-6","volume":"2","author":"S Gerke","year":"2019","unstructured":"Gerke S, Minssen T, Yu H, Cohen IG. Ethical and legal issues of ingestible electronic sensors. Nat Electron. 2019;2(8):329\u201334.","journal-title":"Nat Electron"},{"issue":"3","key":"1158_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1097\/APO.0000000000000397","volume":"10","author":"YI Abdullah","year":"2021","unstructured":"Abdullah YI, Schuman JS, Shabsigh R, Caplan A, Al-Aswad LA. Ethics of Artificial Intelligence in Medicine and Ophthalmology. Asia-Pacific J Ophthalmol. 2021;10(3):289.","journal-title":"Asia-Pacific J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"2","key":"1158_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1053\/j.semnuclmed.2020.08.001","volume":"51","author":"G Currie","year":"2021","unstructured":"Currie G, Hawk KE. Ethical and Legal Challenges of Artificial Intelligence in Nuclear Medicine. Semin Nucl Med. 2021;51(2):120\u20135.","journal-title":"Semin Nucl Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"1158_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1080\/15265160500506456","volume":"6","author":"R Baker","year":"2006","unstructured":"Baker R. Confidentiality in Professional Medical Ethics. Am J Bioeth. 2006;6(2):39\u201341.","journal-title":"Am J Bioeth"},{"key":"1158_CR56","unstructured":"Protect the public. | Coll\u00e8ge des m\u00e9decins du Qu\u00e9bec [Internet]. [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/www.cmq.org\/en\/protect-the-public"},{"issue":"24","key":"1158_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1518","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198212093072411","volume":"307","author":"M Siegler","year":"1982","unstructured":"Siegler M. Confidentiality in Medicine: A Decrepit Concept. N Engl J Med. 1982;307(24):1518\u201321.","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"1158_CR58","unstructured":"Artificial Intelligence [AI] in Healthcare Market Size [Internet]. Fortune Business Insights. 2024 Jul [cited 2024 Aug 16] p. 159. Report No.: FBI100534 Source: https:\/\/www.fortunebusinessinsights.com\/industry-reports\/artificial-intelligence-in-healthcare-market-100534. Available from: https:\/\/www.fortunebusinessinsights.com\/industry-reports\/artificial-intelligence-in-healthcare-market-100534"},{"issue":"2","key":"1158_CR59","first-page":"475","volume":"19","author":"B Henderson","year":"2022","unstructured":"Henderson B, Flood C, Scassa T. Artificial Intelligence in Canadian Healthcare: Will the Law Protect Us from Algorithmic Bias Resulting in Discrimination? Can J Law Technol. 2022;19(2):475.","journal-title":"Can J Law Technol"},{"issue":"1","key":"1158_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1186\/s12911-020-01332-6","volume":"20","author":"J Amann","year":"2020","unstructured":"Amann J, Blasimme A, Vayena E, Frey D, Madai VI. the Precise4Q consortium. Explainability for artificial intelligence in healthcare: a multidisciplinary perspective. BMC Med Inf Decis Mak. 2020;20(1):310.","journal-title":"BMC Med Inf Decis Mak"},{"issue":"6","key":"1158_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.2217\/pme-2016-0057","volume":"13","author":"T Sharon","year":"2016","unstructured":"Sharon T. The Googlization of health research: from disruptive innovation to disruptive ethics. Per Med. 2016;13(6):563\u201374.","journal-title":"Per Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"1158_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/s12910-017-0184-y","volume":"18","author":"JMM Rumbold","year":"2017","unstructured":"Rumbold JMM, Pierscionek BK. A critique of the regulation of data science in healthcare research in the European Union. BMC Med Ethics. 2017;18(1):27.","journal-title":"BMC Med Ethics"},{"issue":"3","key":"1158_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2018.2866769","volume":"107","author":"S Spiekermann","year":"2019","unstructured":"Spiekermann S, Korunovska J, Langheinrich M. Inside the Organization: Why Privacy and Security Engineering Is a Challenge for Engineers. Proc IEEE. 2019;107(3):600\u201315.","journal-title":"Proc IEEE"},{"key":"1158_CR64","unstructured":"U.S. HIPAA Privacy Rule [Internet]. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations. Section\u00a0160.103; 164.508. Available from: https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-45\/part-160"},{"key":"1158_CR65","unstructured":"Australian Privacy Act [Internet]. Australian Federal Register of Legislation, 119 1988. Available from: https:\/\/www.oaic.gov.au\/privacy\/privacy-legislation\/the-privacy-act"},{"key":"1158_CR66","unstructured":"French Data Protection Authority. (Commission nationale de l\u2019informatique et des libert\u00e9s). Cnil.fr. [cited 2023 Oct 13]. What is health information ? \/ Qu\u2019est-ce ce qu\u2019une donn\u00e9e de sant\u00e9 ? https:\/\/www.cnil.fr\/fr\/quest-ce-ce-quune-donnee-de-sante"},{"key":"1158_CR67","unstructured":"Regulation (EU) 2016\/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April. 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95\/46\/EC (General Data Protection Regulation) [Internet]. OJ L, (EU) 2016\/679 Apr 27, 2016. Available from: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/eli\/reg\/2016\/679\/oj"},{"issue":"5","key":"1158_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1007\/s13244-018-0645-y","volume":"9","author":"F Pesapane","year":"2018","unstructured":"Pesapane F, Volont\u00e9 C, Codari M, Sardanelli F. Artificial intelligence as a medical device in radiology: ethical and regulatory issues in Europe and the United States. Insights Imaging. 2018;9(5):745\u201353.","journal-title":"Insights Imaging"},{"key":"1158_CR69","unstructured":"California Consumer Privacy Act [Internet]. California Civil Code. Section\u00a01798.100\u20131798.199.100. Available from: https:\/\/leginfo.legislature.ca.gov\/faces\/codes_displaySection.xhtml?lawCode=CIV&sectionNum=1798.140"},{"key":"1158_CR70","unstructured":"An Act to modernize legislative provisions as regards the protection of personal information [Internet]. RLRQ, c. 25 Sep 22. 2021. Available from: https:\/\/www.canlii.org\/en\/qc\/laws\/astat\/sq-2021-c-25\/latest\/sq-2021-c-25.html"},{"key":"1158_CR71","unstructured":"Quebec Act respecting the protection. of personal information in the private sector [Internet]. Sect. chapter P-39.1 p. preprint 12\u20131. Available from: https:\/\/www.legisquebec.gouv.qc.ca\/en\/document\/cs\/p-39.1"},{"key":"1158_CR72","unstructured":"Quebec Act respecting Access to documents held by public bodies. and the Protection of personal information [Internet]. Sect. chapter A-2.1 p. preprint 65.2. Available from: https:\/\/www.legisquebec.gouv.qc.ca\/en\/document\/cs\/A-2.1"},{"key":"1158_CR73","unstructured":"Christman J. Autonomy in Moral and Political Philosophy. In: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy [Internet]. Fall 2020. Stanford: Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University; 2020 [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/fall2020\/entries\/autonomy-moral\/"},{"key":"1158_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miquel PA. Respect et inviolabilit\u00e9 du corps humain. Noesis. 2007;(12):239\u201363.","DOI":"10.4000\/noesis.1383"},{"issue":"4","key":"1158_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-020-00435-2","volume":"34","author":"A Erasmus","year":"2021","unstructured":"Erasmus A, Brunet TDP, Fisher E. What is Interpretability? Philos Technol. 2021;34(4):833\u201362.","journal-title":"Philos Technol"},{"key":"1158_CR76","unstructured":"Faden RR. King TLBI collaboration with NMP. A History and Theory of Informed Consent [Internet]. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press; 1986. 408 p. Available from: https:\/\/books.google.ca\/books?hl=fr&lr=&id=jgi7OWxDT9cC&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&dq=A+History+and+Theory+of+Informed+Consent&ots=ZiOTZYXiQ8&sig=4Ytxls3xoQBerh3ruGkCKSZTLf8&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=A%20History%20and%20Theory%20of%20Informed%20Consent&f=false"},{"key":"1158_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Cordeiro JV. Digital Technologies and Data Science as Health Enablers: An Outline of Appealing Promises and Compelling Ethical, Legal, and Social Challenges. Frontiers in Medicine [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2022 Dec 15];8. Available from: https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fmed.2021.647897","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.647897"},{"key":"1158_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Porsdam Mann S, Savulescu J, Sahakian BJ. Facilitating the ethical use of health data for the benefit of society: electronic health records, consent and the duty of easy rescue. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 2016;374(2083):20160130.","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2016.0130"},{"key":"1158_CR79","unstructured":"Pham A, Rubel A, Castro C, editors. Autonomy, Agency, and Responsibility. In: Algorithms and : The Ethics of Automated Decision Systems [Internet]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2021 [cited 2024 Aug 5]. pp. 21\u201342. Available from: https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/books\/algorithms-and-autonomy\/autonomy-agency-and-responsibility\/BA4D809382F63A0DB4F9549EE9E99641"},{"key":"1158_CR80","unstructured":"Duguet J, Chassang G, B\u00e9ranger J, Enjeux. r\u00e9percussions et cadre \u00e9thique relatifs \u00e0 l\u2019Intelligence Artificielle en sant\u00e9. Vers une Intelligence Artificielle \u00e9thique en m\u00e9decine. Droit, Sant\u00e9 et Soci\u00e9t\u00e9. 2019;3(3):30\u20139."},{"issue":"2","key":"1158_CR81","first-page":"203","volume":"t XXXIV","author":"N de Marcellis-Warin","year":"2020","unstructured":"de Marcellis-Warin N, Marty F, Thelisson E, Warin T. Intelligence artificielle et manipulations des comportements de march\u00e9 : l\u2019\u00e9valuation ex ante dans l\u2019arsenal du r\u00e9gulateur. Revue Int de droit \u00e9conomique. 2020;t XXXIV(2):203\u201345.","journal-title":"Revue Int de droit \u00e9conomique"},{"key":"1158_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SUNSTEIN CR. Sludge Audits. Behavioural Public Policy. 2020\/01\/06 ed. 2022;6(4):654\u201373.","DOI":"10.1017\/bpp.2019.32"},{"issue":"2","key":"1158_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patter.2021.100205","volume":"2","author":"A Birhane","year":"2021","unstructured":"Birhane A. Algorithmic injustice: a relational ethics approach. Patterns. 2021;2(2):100205.","journal-title":"Patterns"},{"key":"1158_CR84","unstructured":"Abeezar S. Consent requires more than respect for autonomy [Internet]. Journal of Medical Ethics blog. 2021 [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/blogs.bmj.com\/medical-ethics\/2021\/08\/27\/consent-requires-more-than-respect-for-autonomy\/"},{"key":"1158_CR85","unstructured":"Cohen IG. Informed Consent and Medical Artificial Intelligence: What to Tell the Patient? the georgetown law journal [Internet]. 108. Available from: https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?hl=fr&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=%22Informed+Consent+and+Medical+Artificial+Intelligence%3A+What+to+Tell+the+Patient%3F%22&btnG=."},{"key":"1158_CR86","unstructured":"Philips-Nootens S, Kouri RP. \u00c9l\u00e9ments de responsabilit\u00e9 civile m\u00e9dicale - Le droit dans le quotidien de la m\u00e9decine [Internet]. 5\u00e8me. \u00c9ditions Yvon Blais; 2022 [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/www.wilsonlafleur.com\/wilsonlafleur\/CatDetails.aspx?C=347.527.22"},{"key":"1158_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shearer E, Cho M, Magnus D. Chapter 23 - Regulatory, socithical, and legal issues of artificial intelligence in medicine. In: Xing L, Giger ML, Min JK, editors. Artificial Intelligence in Medicine [Internet]. Academic Press; 2021 [cited 2022 Dec 15]. pp. 457\u201377. Available from: https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/B9780128212592000235","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-821259-2.00023-5"},{"key":"1158_CR88","unstructured":"Turner BAL, Rainie M, Anderson A, Perrin. Madhu Kumar and Erica. Americans and Privacy: Concerned, Confused and Feeling Lack of Control Over Their Personal Information [Internet]. Pew Research Center. 2019 [cited 2024 Aug 16]. Available from: https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/internet\/2019\/11\/15\/americans-and-privacy-concerned-confused-and-feeling-lack-of-control-over-their-personal-information\/"},{"key":"1158_CR89","unstructured":"Viard-Guillot L. 82% des internautes prot\u00e8gent leurs donn\u00e9es personnelles en ligne - Insee Focus \u2013\u2009272 [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2024 Aug 16]. Available from: https:\/\/www.insee.fr\/fr\/statistiques\/6475020"},{"key":"1158_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dufresne Y, Dumouchel D, Poirier W. Fondements de l\u2019acceptabilit\u00e9 sociale des applications de tra\u00e7age en temps de pand\u00e9mie- technophobie, crainte sanitaire ou id\u00e9ologie d\u00e9mocratique [Internet]. International Observatory on the societal impacts of AI and digital technology; 2021 Jun [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/www.docdroid.com\/8B7QzzK\/fondements-de-lacceptabilite-sociale-des-applications-de-tracage-en-temps-de-pandemie-technophobie-crainte-sanitaire-ou-ideologie-democratique-pdf","DOI":"10.61737\/SSOC2889"},{"key":"1158_CR91","unstructured":"Crichton C. L\u2019intelligence artificielle dans la r\u00e9vision de la loi bio\u00e9thique - IP\/IT et Communication | Dalloz Actualit\u00e9 [Internet]. Dalloz Actualit\u00e9 IP\/IT. 2021 [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/www.dalloz-actualite.fr\/node\/l-intelligence-artificielle-dans-revision-de-loi-bioethique"},{"issue":"3","key":"1158_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.3406\/staso.2020.1136","volume":"8","author":"P Besse","year":"2020","unstructured":"Besse P, Besse-Patin A, Castets-Renard C. Implications juridiques et \u00e9thiques des algorithmes d\u2019intelligence artificielle dans le domaine de la sant\u00e9. Statistique et Soci\u00e9t\u00e9. 2020;8(3):21\u201353.","journal-title":"Statistique et Soci\u00e9t\u00e9"},{"issue":"9","key":"1158_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-019-0548-6","volume":"25","author":"J Wiens","year":"2019","unstructured":"Wiens J, Saria S, Sendak M, Ghassemi M, Liu VX, Doshi-Velez F, et al. Do no harm: a roadmap for responsible machine learning for health care. Nat Med. 2019;25(9):1337\u201340.","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"#cr-split#-1158_CR94.1","unstructured":"Crawford K, Miltner K, Gray M. Critiquing Big Data: Politics Ethics Epistemology (2014) International Journal of Communication 8 1663"},{"key":"#cr-split#-1158_CR94.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boyd D Crawford K 'Critical Questions for Big Data: Provocations for a Cultural Technological and Scholarly Phenomenon. Information, Communication & Society. 2012;15(5):662.","DOI":"10.1080\/1369118X.2012.678878"},{"key":"1158_CR95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2020.02.022","volume":"214","author":"MD Abr\u00e0moff","year":"2020","unstructured":"Abr\u00e0moff MD, Tobey D, Char DS. Lessons Learned About Autonomous AI: Finding a Safe, Efficacious, and Ethical Path Through the Development Process. Am J Ophthalmol. 2020;214:134\u201342.","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"1158_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237802312199958","DOI":"10.1177\/2378023121999581","volume":"7","author":"K Joyce","year":"2021","unstructured":"Joyce K, Smith-Doerr L, Alegria S, Bell S, Cruz T, Hoffman SG, et al. Toward a Sociology of Artificial Intelligence: A Call for Research on Inequalities and Structural Change. Socius. 2021;7:2378023121999581.","journal-title":"Socius"},{"issue":"1","key":"1158_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.37765\/ajmc.2020.42142","volume":"26","author":"S Chen","year":"2020","unstructured":"Chen S, Bergman D, Miller K, Kavanagh A, Frownfelter J, Showalter J. Using applied machine learning to predict healthcare utilization based on socioeconomic determinants of care. Am J Manag Care. 2020;26(1):26\u201331.","journal-title":"Am J Manag Care"},{"key":"1158_CR98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Onukwugha E, Duru OK, Peprah E, Foreword. Big Data and Its Application in Health Disparities Research. Ethn Dis 27(2):69\u201372.","DOI":"10.18865\/ed.27.2.69"},{"key":"1158_CR99","unstructured":"Buolamwini J, Gebru T. Gender Shades: Intersectional Accuracy Disparities in Commercial Gender Classification. In: Proceedings of the 1st Conference on Fairness, Accountability and Transparency [Internet]. PMLR; 2018 [cited 2024 Aug 16]. pp. 77\u201391. Available from: https:\/\/proceedings.mlr.press\/v81\/buolamwini18a.html"},{"key":"1158_CR100","unstructured":"Khaitan T. A Theory of Discrimination Law [Internet]. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press; 2015. 288 p. Available from: https:\/\/books.google.ca\/books?hl=fr%26lr=%26id=HwjHCQAAQBAJ%26oi=fnd%26pg=PP1%26dq=A+Theory+of+Discrimination+Law%26ots=S_9upVam-5%26sig=5-iB_YYtRfeBMQR3-LacAT64UGw%26redir_esc=y#v=onepage%26q=A%20Theory%20of%20Discrimination%20Law%26f=false"},{"key":"1158_CR101","unstructured":"www.mipex.eu [Internet]. [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Anti-discrimination - MIPEX 2020. Available from: https:\/\/www.mipex.eu\/anti-discrimination"},{"key":"1158_CR102","unstructured":"Li Vigni F, Chapitre. 1. Les th\u00e9ories de la complexit\u00e9 : un essai de mise en ordre. In: Histoire et sociologie des sciences de la complexit\u00e9 [Internet]. Paris: \u00c9ditions Mat\u00e9riologiques; 2022. pp. 17\u201344. (Mod\u00e9lisations, simulations, syst\u00e8mes complexes). Available from: https:\/\/www.cairn.info\/histoire-et-sociologie-des-sciences--9782373613346-p-17.htm"},{"key":"1158_CR103","unstructured":"Sabouret N. The Conversation. 2020 [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Why Artificial Intelligence Gets It Wrong All the Time. Available from: http:\/\/theconversation.com\/pourquoi-lintelligence-artificielle-se-trompe-tout-le-temps-143019"},{"key":"1158_CR104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Todisco I, Giglio GEM, Zerlenga O. Automatic Image Recognition. Applications to Architecture. In: Luigini A, editor. Proceedings of the 1st International and Interdisciplinary Conference on Digital Environments for Education, Arts and Heritage [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019. pp. 106\u201315. (Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing). Available from: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-12240-9_12","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-12240-9_12"},{"issue":"7777","key":"1158_CR105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-019-03013-5","volume":"574","author":"D Heaven","year":"2019","unstructured":"Heaven D. Why deep-learning AIs are so easy to fool. Nature. 2019;574(7777):163\u20136.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"6433","key":"1158_CR106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaw4399","volume":"363","author":"SG Finlayson","year":"2019","unstructured":"Finlayson SG, Bowers JD, Ito J, Zittrain JL, Beam AL, Kohane IS. Adversarial attacks on medical machine learning. Science. 2019;363(6433):1287\u20139.","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"1158_CR107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ozturk A. Lessons Learned from Robotics and AI in a Liability Context: A Sustainability Perspective. In: Carpenter A, Johansson TM, Skinner JA, editors. Sustainability in the Maritime Domain: Towards Ocean Governance and Beyond [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2021 [cited 2023 Feb 2]. pp. 315\u201335. (Strategies for Sustainability). Available from: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-69325-1_16","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-69325-1_16"},{"key":"1158_CR108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bond RR, Novotny T, Andrsova I, Koc L, Sisakova M, Finlay D, et al. Automation bias in medicine: The influence of automated diagnoses on interpreter accuracy and uncertainty when reading electrocardiograms. J Electrocardiology. 2018;51(6, Supplement):S6\u201311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jelectrocard.2018.08.007.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelectrocard.2018.08.007"},{"key":"1158_CR109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lyell D, Magrabi F, Raban MZ, Pont LG, Baysari MT, Day RO, et al. Automation bias in electronic prescribing. BMC Med Inform Decis Mak. 2017;17(1):28. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12911-017-0425-5.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12911-017-0425-5"},{"issue":"1","key":"1158_CR110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1968","DOI":"10.1002\/rcs.1968","volume":"15","author":"S O\u2019Sullivan","year":"2019","unstructured":"O\u2019Sullivan S, Nevejans N, Allen C, Blyth A, Leonard S, Pagallo U, et al. Legal, regulatory, and ethical frameworks for development of standards in artificial intelligence (AI) and autonomous robotic surgery. Int J Med Rob Comput Assist Surg. 2019;15(1):e1968.","journal-title":"Int J Med Rob Comput Assist Surg"},{"key":"1158_CR111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gracia D. The Foundation of Medical Ethics in the Democratic Evolution of Modern Society. In: Thomasma DC, Weisstub DN, Kushner TK, Viafora C, editors. Clinical Bioethics: A Search for the Foundations [Internet]. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands; 2005 [cited 2023 Sep 8]. pp. 33\u201340. (International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine). Available from: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/1-4020-3593-4_3","DOI":"10.1007\/1-4020-3593-4_3"},{"key":"1158_CR112","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Ethics and governance of artificial intelligence for health [Internet]. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2021 [cited 2023 Feb 1]. Available from: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications-detail-redirect\/9789240029200"},{"key":"1158_CR113","unstructured":"Canada H. Good machine learning practice for medical device development: Guiding principles [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/www.canada.ca\/en\/health-canada\/services\/drugs-health-products\/medical-devices\/good-machine-learning-practice-medical-device-development.html"},{"key":"1158_CR114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cousineau M, Castonguay A, D\u00e9finitions. et usages de l\u2019IA en sant\u00e9 [Internet]. Montr\u00e9al: International Observatory on the societal impacts of AI and digital technology; 2022 Mar [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/www.docdroid.com\/X6knvzZ\/definitions-et-usages-de-lia-en-sante-pdf","DOI":"10.61737\/GDBG7853"},{"issue":"1","key":"1158_CR115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1080\/13600834.2021.1958860","volume":"31","author":"T Enarsson","year":"2022","unstructured":"Enarsson T, Enqvist L, Naarttij\u00e4rvi M. Approaching the human in the loop \u2013 legal perspectives on hybrid human\/algorithmic decision-making in three contexts. Inform Commun Technol Law. 2022;31(1):123\u201353.","journal-title":"Inform Commun Technol Law"},{"key":"1158_CR116","unstructured":"Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down harmonised rules on Artificial Intelligence. (Artificial Intelligence Act) and amending certain Union Legislative Acts [Internet]. COM\/2021\/206 final 2021. Available from: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/EN\/ALL\/?uri=CELEX%3A52021PC0206"},{"key":"1158_CR117","unstructured":"Tessier C. \u00c9thique et IA: analyse et discussion. In: PFIA 2021 [Internet]., Bordeaux F. 2021 [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/hal.science\/hal-03280105"},{"key":"1158_CR118","unstructured":"Brundage M, Avin S, Jack Clark H, Toner P, Eckersley, Garfinkel B et al. The Malicious Use of Artificial Intelligence: Forecasting, Prevention, and Mitigation [Internet]. Future of Humanity Institute; University of Oxford; Centre for the Study of Existential Risk; University of Cambridge; Center for a New American Security Electronic Frontier Foundation; OpenAI; 2018 Feb [cited 2022 Dec 15] p. 99. Available from: https:\/\/arxiv-org.ezproxy.u-paris.fr\/pdf\/1802.07228.pdf&sa=D&ust=1550739471109000.pdf"},{"issue":"2\u20133","key":"1158_CR119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1177\/0098858818789418","volume":"44","author":"B Evans","year":"2018","unstructured":"Evans B, Ossorio P. The Challenge of Regulating Clinical Decision Support Software After 21st Century Cures. Am J Law Med. 2018;44(2\u20133):237\u201351.","journal-title":"Am J Law Med"},{"key":"1158_CR120","unstructured":"Health C, for D. and R. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Software as a Medical Device. FDA [Internet]. 2023 Apr 8 [cited 2023 Sep 8]; Available from: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medical-devices\/software-medical-device-samd\/artificial-intelligence-and-machine-learning-software-medical-device"},{"key":"1158_CR121","unstructured":"Health C, for D. and R. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning (AI\/ML)-Enabled Medical Devices. FDA [Internet]. 2022 May 10 [cited 2023 Sep 8]; Available from: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medical-devices\/software-medical-device-samd\/artificial-intelligence-and-machine-learning-aiml-enabled-medical-devices"},{"key":"1158_CR122","unstructured":"FDA. Proposed Regulatory Framework for modifications to Artificial Intelligence\/Machine Learning (AI\/ML) based software as a medical device (SaMD) [Internet]. U.S. Food and Drug Administration; [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/media\/122535\/download"},{"key":"1158_CR123","unstructured":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Artificial Intelligence & Medical Products: How CBER, CDER, CDRH, and OCP are Working Together [Internet]. Silver Spring, Maryland: U.S. Food and Drug Administration; 2024 Mar [cited 2024 Aug 16] p. 7. Available from: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/media\/177030\/download?attachment"},{"key":"1158_CR124","unstructured":"R\u00e9gis C, Flood CM. AI and Health Law [Internet]., Rochester NY. 2021 [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/abstract=3733964"},{"issue":"2","key":"1158_CR125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1093\/ijlit\/eaz004","volume":"27","author":"D Sch\u00f6nberger","year":"2019","unstructured":"Sch\u00f6nberger D. Artificial intelligence in healthcare: a critical analysis of the legal and ethical implications. Int J Law Inform Technol. 2019;27(2):171\u2013203.","journal-title":"Int J Law Inform Technol"},{"key":"1158_CR126","unstructured":"Working group on 28th measure. Cr\u00e9er les conditions d\u2019un d\u00e9veloppement vertueux des objets connect\u00e9s et des applications mobiles en sant\u00e9 [Internet]. French Ministry of Health; 2016 Oct [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Report No.: GT 28 CSF. Available from: https:\/\/sante.gouv.fr\/IMG\/pdf\/rapport-gt28-octobre-2016-vf-full.pdf"},{"key":"1158_CR127","unstructured":"The Artificial Intelligence and Data Act (AIDA) [Internet]. Canadian Government. 2023 Mar [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/ised-isde.canada.ca\/site\/innovation-better-canada\/en\/artificial-intelligence-and-data-act-aida-companion-document"},{"issue":"8","key":"1158_CR128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1225","DOI":"10.3348\/kjr.2020.1210","volume":"22","author":"JH Yoon","year":"2021","unstructured":"Yoon JH, Kim EK. Deep Learning-Based Artificial Intelligence for Mammography. Korean J Radiol. 2021;22(8):1225\u201339.","journal-title":"Korean J Radiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"1158_CR129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3993","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-83506-4","volume":"11","author":"M Seibold","year":"2021","unstructured":"Seibold M, Maurer S, Hoch A, Zingg P, Farshad M, Navab N, et al. Real-time acoustic sensing and artificial intelligence for error prevention in orthopedic surgery. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):3993.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"1158_CR130","unstructured":"Snyder B. Our Misplaced Fear of Job-Stealing Robots [Internet]. Stanford Graduate School of Business. 2019 [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/www.gsb.stanford.edu\/insights\/misplaced-fear-job-stealing-robots"},{"issue":"3","key":"1158_CR131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.3917\/qdm.193.0061","volume":"25","author":"M Bettache","year":"2019","unstructured":"Bettache M, Foisy L. Intelligence artificielle et transformation des emplois. Question(s) de Manage. 2019;25(3):61.","journal-title":"Question(s) de Manage"},{"issue":"8","key":"1158_CR132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacr.2019.01.026","volume":"16","author":"MA Mazurowski","year":"2019","unstructured":"Mazurowski MA. Artificial Intelligence May Cause a Significant Disruption to the Radiology Workforce. J Am Coll Radiol. 2019;16(8):1077\u201382.","journal-title":"J Am Coll Radiol"},{"key":"1158_CR133","unstructured":"Benhamou S, Janin L. Intelligence artificielle et travail [Internet]. Paris, France: France Strat\u00e9gie; 2018 [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/www.strategie.gouv.fr\/publications\/intelligence-artificielle-travail"},{"issue":"7","key":"1158_CR134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1177\/0022034520915714","volume":"99","author":"F Schwendicke","year":"2020","unstructured":"Schwendicke F, Samek W, Krois J. Artificial Intelligence in Dentistry: Chances and Challenges. J Dent Res. 2020;99(7):769\u201374.","journal-title":"J Dent Res"},{"key":"1158_CR135","unstructured":"PARO Therapeutic Robot [Internet]. [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: http:\/\/www.parorobots.com\/"},{"key":"1158_CR136","unstructured":"Artificial Intelligence and Employment [Internet]. OECD. 2021 Dec [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/www.oecd.org\/future-of-work\/reports-and-data\/AI-Employment-brief-2021.pdf"},{"issue":"8","key":"1158_CR137","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2020.03.033","volume":"133","author":"S Ellahham","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ellahham S. Artificial Intelligence: The Future for Diabetes Care. Am J Med. 2020;133(8):895\u2013900.","journal-title":"Am J Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"1158_CR138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1177\/0266382119883999","volume":"36","author":"MH Jarrahi","year":"2019","unstructured":"Jarrahi MH. the age of the smart artificial intelligence: AI\u2019s dual capacities for automating and informating work. Bus Inform Rev. 2019;36(4):178\u201387.","journal-title":"Bus Inform Rev"},{"issue":"1","key":"1158_CR139","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1186\/s12913-021-06861-y","volume":"21","author":"Y Chen","year":"2021","unstructured":"Chen Y, Stavropoulou C, Narasinkan R, Baker A, Scarbrough H. Professionals\u2019 responses to the introduction of AI innovations in radiology and their implications for future adoption: a qualitative study. BMC Health Serv Res. 2021;21(1):813.","journal-title":"BMC Health Serv Res"},{"key":"1158_CR140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bernier J. L\u2019intelligence artificielle et les mondes du travail. Perspectives sociojuridiques et enjeux \u00e9thiques. Presses de l\u2019Universit\u00e9 Laval; 2021. p. 232.","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctv1f2s22n"},{"key":"1158_CR141","unstructured":"IA et emploi en sant\u00e9 : quoi de neuf docteur ? [Internet]. Paris, France: Institut Montaigne; 2019 Jan [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/www.institutmontaigne.org\/ressources\/pdfs\/publications\/ia-et-emploi-en-sante-quoi-de-neuf-docteur-note.pdf"},{"key":"1158_CR142","unstructured":"Hamoni R, Lin O, Matthews M, Taillon PJ. Construire la future main-d\u2019\u0153uvre canadienne dans le domaine de l\u2019intelligence artificielle [Internet]. Ottawa, Canada: Conseil des technologies de l\u2019information et des communications; [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/www.ictc-ctic.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/03\/ICTC_Report_Building_FRE.pdf"},{"key":"1158_CR143","unstructured":"Dupuis M, Hesbeen W. L\u2019\u00e9thique organisationnelle dans le secteur de la sant\u00e9: Ressources et limites contextuelles des pratiques soignantes [Internet]. 1er \u00e9dition. Paris: SELI ARSLAN; 2014. 182 p. Available from: https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?hl=fr&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=L%27%C3%A9thique+organisationnelle+dans+le+secteur+de+la+sant%C3%A9%3A+Ressources+et+limites+contextuelles+des+pratiques+soignantes+Poche+%E2%80%93+14+mai+2014&btnG=."},{"key":"1158_CR144","unstructured":"D\u00e9cret n\u00b02016\u2009\u2013\u20091672 du 5 d\u00e9cembre 2016 relatif aux actes et activit\u00e9s r\u00e9alis\u00e9s par les manipulateurs d\u2019\u00e9lectroradiologie m\u00e9dicale [Internet]. 2016\u20131672 Dec 5, 2016. Available from: https:\/\/www.legifrance.gouv.fr\/jorf\/id\/JORFTEXT000033537927"},{"key":"1158_CR145","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techsoc.2022.102166","volume":"72","author":"MT Ho","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ho MT, Le NTB, Mantello P, Ho MT, Ghotbi N. Understanding the acceptance of emotional artificial intelligence in Japanese healthcare system: A cross-sectional survey of clinic visitors\u2019 attitude. Technol Soc. 2023;72:102166.","journal-title":"Technol Soc"},{"issue":"7767","key":"1158_CR146","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1390-1","volume":"572","author":"N Toma\u0161ev","year":"2019","unstructured":"Toma\u0161ev N, Glorot X, Rae JW, Zielinski M, Askham H, Saraiva A, et al. A clinically applicable approach to continuous prediction of future acute kidney injury. Nature. 2019;572(7767):116\u20139.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"1158_CR147","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101762","DOI":"10.1016\/j.artmed.2019.101762","volume":"102","author":"M Fernandes","year":"2020","unstructured":"Fernandes M, Vieira SM, Leite F, Palos C, Finkelstein S, Sousa JMC. Clinical Decision Support Systems for Triage in the Emergency Department using Intelligent Systems: a Review. Artif Intell Med. 2020;102:101762.","journal-title":"Artif Intell Med"},{"key":"1158_CR148","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbi.2016.03.022","volume":"61","author":"A Goldstein","year":"2016","unstructured":"Goldstein A, Shahar Y. An automated knowledge-based textual summarization system for longitudinal, multivariate clinical data. J Biomed Inform. 2016;61:159\u201375.","journal-title":"J Biomed Inform"},{"issue":"2","key":"1158_CR149","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e35223","DOI":"10.2196\/35223","volume":"8","author":"K Gray","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gray K, Slavotinek J, Dimaguila GL, Choo D. Artificial Intelligence Education for the Health Workforce: Expert Survey of Approaches and Needs. JMIR Med Educ. 2022;8(2):e35223.","journal-title":"JMIR Med Educ"},{"issue":"1","key":"1158_CR150","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-019-02204-y","volume":"18","author":"MC La\u00ef","year":"2020","unstructured":"La\u00ef MC, Brian M, Mamzer MF. Perceptions of artificial intelligence in healthcare: findings from a qualitative survey study among actors in France. J Translational Med. 2020;18(1):14.","journal-title":"J Translational Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"1158_CR151","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e33390","DOI":"10.2196\/33390","volume":"8","author":"M Teng","year":"2022","unstructured":"Teng M, Singla R, Yau O, Lamoureux D, Gupta A, Hu Z, et al. Health Care Students\u2019 Perspectives on Artificial Intelligence: Countrywide Survey in Canada. JMIR Med Educ. 2022;8(1):e33390.","journal-title":"JMIR Med Educ"},{"key":"1158_CR152","unstructured":"Harish V, Bilimoria K, Mehta N, Morgado F, Aissiou A, Eaton S et al. Preparing Medical Students for the Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Healthcare [Internet]. Canadian Federation of Medical Students; Available from: https:\/\/www.cfms.org\/files\/position-papers\/AGM_2020_CFMS_AI.pdf"},{"key":"1158_CR153","unstructured":"Wilson R, Bennett J. RNAO-AMS_Report-Nursing_and_Compassionate_Care_in_the_Age_of_AI_Final_For_Media_Release_10.21.2020.pdf [Internet]. Associated Medical Services (AMS) Healthcare; [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/rnao.ca\/sites\/rnao-ca\/files\/RNAO-AMS_Report-Nursing_and_Compassionate_Care_in_the_Age_of_AI_Final_For_Media_Release_10.21.2020.pdf"},{"key":"1158_CR154","unstructured":"Council on Medical Education. Report 4 on Augmented Intelligence in Medical Education (Resolution 317-A-18) [Internet], American Medical Association. 2019. Report No.: CME Report 4-A-19. Available from: https:\/\/www.ama-assn.org\/system\/files\/cme-report-4-a19-annotated.pdf"},{"key":"1158_CR155","unstructured":"Reznick RK, Ken H, Tanya H, Mohsen Sheikh H. Task Force Report on Artificial Intelligence and Emerging Digital Technologies [Internet]. Royal Collee of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada; 2020 Feb [cited 2023 Sep 8]. Available from: https:\/\/www.royalcollege.ca\/ca\/en\/health-policy\/initiatives-driven-by-research\/ai-task-force.html"},{"key":"1158_CR156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zouinar M. \u00c9volutions de l\u2019Intelligence Artificielle : quels enjeux pour l\u2019activit\u00e9 humaine et la relation Humain\u2013Machine au travail ? Activit\u00e9s [Internet]. 2020 Apr 15 [cited 2023 Sep 8];(17\u20131). Available from: https:\/\/journals.openedition.org\/activites\/4941","DOI":"10.4000\/activites.4941"},{"issue":"2","key":"1158_CR157","first-page":"125","volume":"2","author":"M Cl\u00e9ret","year":"2001","unstructured":"Cl\u00e9ret M, Le Beux P, Le Duff F. Les syst\u00e8mes d\u2019aide \u00e0 la d\u00e9cision m\u00e9dicale. Les Cahiers du num\u00e9rique. 2001;2(2):125\u201354.","journal-title":"Les Cahiers du num\u00e9rique"}],"container-title":["BMC Medical Ethics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12910-024-01158-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12910-024-01158-1\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12910-024-01158-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]],"date-time":"2025-01-15T11:10:34Z","timestamp":1736939434000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bmcmedethics.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s12910-024-01158-1"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]]},"references-count":158,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["1158"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12910-024-01158-1","relation":{},"ISSN":["1472-6939"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1472-6939","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]]},"assertion":[{"value":"24 October 2023","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"10 December 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"15 January 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable. No direct human or human data was involved in the study.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable. No direct human or human data was involved in the study.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"4"}}