{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,29]],"date-time":"2026-10-29T19:46:46Z","timestamp":1793303206990,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771804800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772150400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":4,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Med Ethics"],"DOI":"10.1186\/s12910-026-01408-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T11:34:44Z","timestamp":1771846484000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Ethical challenges in EEG neurofeedback: a systematic review of gaps, risks, and responsibilities"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0429-008X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rukiye","family":"\u00d6l\u00e7\u00fco\u011flu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8982-7239","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rifat Vedat","family":"Y\u0131ld\u0131r\u0131m","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"1408_CR1","first-page":"143","volume":"7","author":"M Marzbani","year":"2016","unstructured":"Marzbani M, Marateb H, H. R., Mansourian. Neurofeedback: A comprehensive review on system design, methodology and clinical applications. Basic Clin Neurosci. 2016;7(2):143\u201358.","journal-title":"Basic Clin Neurosci"},{"key":"1408_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2022.780817","volume":"14","author":"Y Jiang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Jiang Y, et al. Sharpening working memory with Real-Time electrophysiological brain signals: which neurofeedback paradigms work? Front Aging Neurosci. 2022;14:1\u201319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnagi.2022.780817.","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"issue":"1","key":"1408_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.5465\/amle.2016.0220","volume":"17","author":"D Lindebaum","year":"2018","unstructured":"Lindebaum D, Al-Amoudi I, Brown VL. Does leadership development need to care about neuro-ethics? Acad Manag Learn Educ. 2018;17(1):96\u2013109. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5465\/amle.2016.0220.","journal-title":"Acad Manag Learn Educ"},{"issue":"1","key":"1408_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2010.05.026","volume":"479","author":"HNA Logemann","year":"2010","unstructured":"Logemann HNA, Lansbergen MM, Van Os TWDP, B\u00f6cker KBE, Kenemans JL. The effectiveness of EEG-feedback on attention, impulsivity and EEG: A Sham feedback controlled study. Neurosci Lett. 2010;479(1):49\u201353. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neulet.2010.05.026.","journal-title":"Neurosci Lett"},{"issue":"7","key":"1408_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1037\/amp0000118","volume":"72","author":"RT Thibault","year":"2017","unstructured":"Thibault RT, Raz A. The psychology of neurofeedback: clinical intervention even if applied placebo. Am Psychol. 2017;72(7):679\u201388. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/amp0000118.","journal-title":"Am Psychol"},{"issue":"12","key":"1408_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1136\/medethics-2021-107435","volume":"48","author":"L Kalokairinou","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kalokairinou L, Sullivan LS, Wexler A. Neurofeedback as placebo: a case of unintentional deception? J Med Ethics. 2022;48(12):1037\u201342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/medethics-2021-107435.","journal-title":"J Med Ethics"},{"issue":"5","key":"1408_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3475","volume":"14","author":"KS Button","year":"2013","unstructured":"Button KS, et al. Power failure: why small sample size undermines the reliability of neuroscience. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2013;14(5):365\u201376. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nrn3475.","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurosci"},{"key":"1408_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kalokairinou L, Choi R, Nagappan A, Wexler A. Opportunity cost or opportunity lost: an empirical assessment of ethical concerns and attitudes of EEG neurofeedback users. Neuroethics. 2022;15(3). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12152-022-09506-x.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12152-022-09506-x"},{"issue":"4","key":"1408_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1080\/21507740.2021.1896601","volume":"12","author":"A Nagappan","year":"2021","unstructured":"Nagappan A, Kalokairinou L, Wexler A. Ethical and legal considerations of alternative neurotherapies. AJOB Neurosci. 2021;12(4):257\u201369. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/21507740.2021.1896601.","journal-title":"AJOB Neurosci"},{"issue":"1","key":"1408_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1007\/s41465-017-0062-z","volume":"2","author":"A Wexler","year":"2018","unstructured":"Wexler A. Who uses Direct-to-Consumer brain stimulation Products, and why? A study of home users of tDCS devices. J Cogn Enhanc. 2018;2(1):114\u201334. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s41465-017-0062-z.","journal-title":"J Cogn Enhanc"},{"key":"1408_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100690","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcci.2024.100690","volume":"42","author":"AN Antle","year":"2024","unstructured":"Antle AN, McLaren ES. Are mobile neurofeedback games a feasible way to improve self-regulation of attention for young marginalized children? Int J Child-Computer Interact. 2024;42:100690. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijcci.2024.100690.","journal-title":"Int J Child-Computer Interact"},{"key":"1408_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2018.00051","volume":"9","author":"F Ferreri","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ferreri F, Bourla A, Mouchabac S, Karila L. e-Addictology: an overview of new technologies for assessing and intervening in addictive behaviors. Front Psychiatry. 2018;9:1\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2018.00051. no. MAR.","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"issue":"2","key":"1408_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1080\/21507740.2016.1172134","volume":"7","author":"E Nakazawa","year":"2016","unstructured":"Nakazawa E, Yamamoto K, Tachibana K, Toda S, Takimoto Y, Akabayashi A. Ethics of decoded neurofeedback in clinical research, treatment, and moral enhancement. AJOB Neurosci. 2016;7(2):110\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/21507740.2016.1172134.","journal-title":"AJOB Neurosci"},{"issue":"2","key":"1408_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1080\/21507740.2016.1172135","volume":"7","author":"D Horstk\u00f6tter","year":"2016","unstructured":"Horstk\u00f6tter D. The ethics of novel neurotechnologies: focus on research ethics and on moral values. AJOB Neurosci. 2016;7(2):123\u20135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/21507740.2016.1172135.","journal-title":"AJOB Neurosci"},{"issue":"1","key":"1408_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40504-017-0050-1","volume":"13","author":"M Ienca","year":"2017","unstructured":"Ienca M, Andorno R. Towards new human rights in the age of neuroscience and neurotechnology. Life Sci Soc Policy. 2017;13(1):1\u201327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40504-017-0050-1.","journal-title":"Life Sci Soc Policy"},{"key":"1408_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ruiz S, Valera L, Ramos P, Sitaram R. Neurorights in the Constitution: from neurotechnology to ethics and politics, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci., vol. 379, no. 1915, 2024. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rstb.2023.0098","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2023.0098"},{"issue":"1","key":"1408_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-019-00576-5","volume":"35","author":"T Muka","year":"2020","unstructured":"Muka T, et al. A 24-step guide on how to design, conduct, and successfully publish a systematic review and meta-analysis in medical research. Eur J Epidemiol. 2020;35(1):49\u201360. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10654-019-00576-5.","journal-title":"Eur J Epidemiol"},{"key":"1408_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Page MJ, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021;372. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmj.n71.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71"},{"issue":"6","key":"1408_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1177\/15500594241279997","volume":"55","author":"R \u00d6l\u00e7\u00fco\u011flu","year":"2024","unstructured":"\u00d6l\u00e7\u00fco\u011flu R, Kozano\u011flu \u0130, M\u0131d\u0131k M, G\u00fcl Ate\u015f E. The impact of neurofeedback training on cognitive abilities assessed by the Wechsler intelligence scale for children-Revised in children with attention deficit: A randomized Single-Blind Sham-Controlled study. Clin EEG Neurosci. 2024;55(6):603\u201312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/15500594241279997.","journal-title":"Clin EEG Neurosci"},{"key":"1408_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conctc.2024.101362","volume":"41","author":"F Golshan","year":"2024","unstructured":"Golshan F, et al. Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial of neurofeedback mindfulness in chronic migraines. Contemp Clin Trials Commun. 2024;41:101362. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.conctc.2024.101362.","journal-title":"Contemp Clin Trials Commun"},{"key":"1408_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neures.2022.07.006","volume":"183","author":"E Nakazawa","year":"2022","unstructured":"Nakazawa E, et al. The way forward for neuroethics in japan: A review of five topics surrounding present challenges. Neurosci Res. 2022;183:7\u201316. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neures.2022.07.006.","journal-title":"Neurosci Res"},{"issue":"12","key":"1408_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2196\/11643","volume":"6","author":"F Ferreri","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ferreri F, Bourla A, Peretti CS, Segawa T, Jaafari N, Mouchabac S. How new technologies can improve prediction, assessment, and intervention in obsessive-compulsive disorder (e-ocd): review. JMIR Ment Heal. 2019;6(12):1\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2196\/11643.","journal-title":"JMIR Ment Heal"},{"issue":"4","key":"1408_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1002\/ceas.12318","volume":"63","author":"JR Spears","year":"2024","unstructured":"Spears JR, Romero DE, Robertson DL, Prasath PR. Development of neurofeedback training competencies for counselors: A Delphi study. Couns Educ Superv. 2024;63(4):364\u201378. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ceas.12318.","journal-title":"Couns Educ Superv"},{"key":"1408_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Jangwan NS et al. September., Brain augmentation and neuroscience technologies: current applications, challenges, ethics and future prospects, Front. Syst. Neurosci., vol. 16, no. 2022, pp. 1\u201326, 2022. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnsys.2022.1000495","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2022.1000495"},{"key":"1408_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Micoulaud-Franchi JA, Fond G, Dumas G. Cyborg psychiatry to ensure agency and autonomy in mental disorders. A proposal for neuromodulation therapeutics, Front. Hum. Neurosci., vol. 7, no. SEP, pp. 1\u20135, 2013, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00463","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00463"},{"issue":"2","key":"1408_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2257435","DOI":"10.1080\/20008066.2023.2257435","volume":"14","author":"M Askovic","year":"2023","unstructured":"Askovic M, Soh N, Elhindi J, Harris AWF. Neurofeedback for post-traumatic stress disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical and neurophysiological outcomes. Eur J Psychotraumatology. 2023;14(2):2257435. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/20008066.2023.2257435.","journal-title":"Eur J Psychotraumatology"},{"key":"1408_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Cherkaoui M, Rissman J, Lau H, Hampson M. Ethical considerations for fMRI neurofeedback. fMRI Neurofeedback. 2021;315\u201331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/b978-0-12-822421-2.00007-7.","DOI":"10.1016\/b978-0-12-822421-2.00007-7"},{"key":"1408_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Striefel S. Ethics in neurofeedback practice. In: Budzynski TH, editor. Introduction to quantitative EEG and neurofeedback: advanced theory and applications. 2nd ed. Academic Press\/Elsevier; 2009. pp. 473\u2013492. http:\/\/digitool.hbz-nrw.de:1801\/webclient\/DeliveryManager?pid=2802034&custom_att_2=simple_viewer.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-374534-7.00018-6"},{"issue":"9","key":"1408_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2006.07.002","volume":"29","author":"J Illes","year":"2006","unstructured":"Illes J, Bird SJ. Neuroethics: a modern context for ethics in neuroscience. Trends Neurosci. 2006;29(9):511\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tins.2006.07.002.","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci"},{"issue":"1","key":"1408_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12152-024-09572-3","volume":"18","author":"BAJ Jap","year":"2025","unstructured":"Jap BAJ, Alimu S, Dolcini N. Affect and human electrophysiological research. Neuroethics. 2025;18(1):1\u201317. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12152-024-09572-3.","journal-title":"Neuroethics"},{"key":"1408_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1007\/s12152-019-09398-4","volume":"14","author":"R Holt","year":"2021","unstructured":"Holt R, McLean L. Australian psychotherapy for trauma incorporating neuroscience: Evidence- and Ethics-Informed practice. Neuroethics. 2021;14:295\u2013309. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12152-019-09398-4.","journal-title":"Neuroethics"},{"key":"1408_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Gooding P, Kariotis T. Ethics and law in research on algorithmic and Data-Driven technology in mental health care: scoping review. JMIR Ment Heal, 10, 8(6), p. e24668, doi: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2196\/24668","DOI":"10.2196\/24668"},{"key":"1408_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Saeidnia HR, Hashemi Fotami SG, Lund B, Ghiasi N. Ethical considerations in artificial intelligence interventions for mental health and Well-Being: ensuring responsible implementation and impact. Soc Sci. 2024;13(7). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/socsci13070381.","DOI":"10.3390\/socsci13070381"},{"key":"1408_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"855493","DOI":"10.3389\/fpain.2022.855493","volume":"3","author":"N Birch","year":"2022","unstructured":"Birch N, Graham J, Ozolins C, Kumarasinghe K, Almesfer F, Home-Based EEG. Neurofeedback intervention for the management of chronic pain. Front Pain Res (Lausanne). 2022;3:855493. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpain.2022.855493. PMID: 35712448; PMCID: PMC9197102.","journal-title":"Front Pain Res (Lausanne)"},{"issue":"11","key":"1408_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpain.2024.104651","volume":"25","author":"DA Rice","year":"2024","unstructured":"Rice DA, Ozolins C, Biswas R, Almesfer F, Zeng I, Parikh A, Vile WG, Rashid U, Graham J, Kluger MT. Home-based EEG neurofeedback for the treatment of chronic pain: A randomized controlled clinical trial. J Pain. 2024;25(11):104651. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpain.2024.104651.","journal-title":"J Pain"},{"key":"1408_CR36","unstructured":"Association for Applied. Psychophysiology and Biofeedback. (n.d.). About AAPB. https:\/\/www.aapb.org"},{"key":"1408_CR37","unstructured":"International Society for Neuroregulation and Research. (n.d.). ISNR mission and professional activities. https:\/\/www.isnr.org"},{"issue":"2","key":"1408_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.47857\/irjms.2024.v05i02.0670","volume":"5","author":"NB Jerrin","year":"2024","unstructured":"Jerrin NB, Bhuvaneswari G. Comprehending ai\u2019s role in literature and arts from a transhumanist perspective. Int Res J Multidiscip Scope. 2024;5(2):846\u201359. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.47857\/irjms.2024.v05i02.0670.","journal-title":"Int Res J Multidiscip Scope"},{"key":"1408_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Hertz N. Neurorights \u2013 Do we need new human rights? A reconsideration of the right to freedom of thought. Neuroethics. 2023;16(1). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12152-022-09511-0.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12152-022-09511-0"},{"key":"1408_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ligthart S, Ienca M, Meynen G, Molnar-Gabor F, Andorno R, Bublitz C, Catley P, Claydon L, Douglas T, Farahany N, Fins JJ, Goering S, Haselager P, Jotterand F, Lavazza A, McCay A, Paz W, Rainey A, Ryberg S, J., Kellmeyer P. Minding Rights: Mapping Ethical and Legal Foundations of \u2018Neurorights\u2019. Camb Q Healthc Ethics: CQ : Int J Healthc Ethics Committees. 2023;1\u201321. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0963180123000245. Advance online publication.","DOI":"10.1017\/S0963180123000245"},{"issue":"1","key":"1408_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1007\/s11017-014-9276-6","volume":"35","author":"F Focquaert","year":"2014","unstructured":"Focquaert F. Mandatory neurotechnological treatment: ethical issues. Theor Med Bioeth. 2014;35(1):59\u201372. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11017-014-9276-6.","journal-title":"Theor Med Bioeth"},{"key":"1408_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2015.09.070","volume":"125","author":"K Cohen Kadosh","year":"2016","unstructured":"Cohen Kadosh K, et al. Using real-time fMRI to influence effective connectivity in the developing emotion regulation network. NeuroImage. 2016;125:616\u201326. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2015.09.070.","journal-title":"NeuroImage"}],"container-title":["BMC Medical Ethics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12910-026-01408-4","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12910-026-01408-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12910-026-01408-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T06:25:24Z","timestamp":1772173524000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s12910-026-01408-4"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["1408"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12910-026-01408-4","relation":{},"ISSN":["1472-6939"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1472-6939","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]]},"assertion":[{"value":"13 January 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"11 February 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"23 February 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable. This study is based exclusively on the analysis of previously published literature and did not involve human participants or animals.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"43"}}